Ticks and the pathogens they transmit constitute a growing burden for human and animal health worldwide. Vector competence is a component of vectorial capacity and depends on genetic determinants affecting the ability of a vector to transmit a pathogen. These determinants affect traits such as tick-host-pathogen and susceptibility to pathogen infection. Therefore, the elucidation of the mechanisms involved in tick-pathogen interactions that affect vector competence is essential for the identification of molecular drivers for tick-borne diseases. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of tick-pathogen molecular interactions for bacteria, viruses and protozoa affecting human and animal health. Additionally, the impact of tick microbiome on these interactions was considered. Results show that different pathogens evolved similar strategies such as manipulation of the immune response to infect vectors and facilitate multiplication and transmission. Furthermore, some of these strategies may be used by pathogens to infect both tick and mammalian host. Identification of interactions that promote tick survival, spread and pathogen transmission provides the opportunity to disrupt these interactions and lead to a reduction in tick burden and the prevalence of tick-borne diseases. Targeting some of the similar mechanisms used by the pathogens for infection and transmission by ticks may assist in development of preventative strategies against multiple tick-borne diseases.

The causative agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis was recently reclassified as Anaplasma phagocytophilum , unifying previously described bacteria that cause disease in humans, horses, dogs, and ruminants. For the characterization of genetic heterogeneity in this species, the homologue of Anaplasma marginale major surface protein 4 gene ( msp4 ) was identified, and the coding region was PCR amplified and sequenced from a variety of sources, including 50 samples from the United States, Germany, Poland, Norway, Italy, and Switzerland and 4 samples of A. phagocytophilum -like organisms obtained from white-tailed deer in the United States. Sequence variation between strains of A. phagocytophilum (90 to 100% identity at the nucleotide level and 92 to 100% similarity at the protein level) was higher than in A. marginale . Phylogenetic analyses of msp4 sequences did not provide phylogeographic information but did differentiate strains of A. phagocytophilum obtained from ruminants from those obtained from humans, dogs, and horses. The sequence analysis of the recently discovered A. phagocytophilum msp2 gene corroborated these results. The results reported here suggest that although A. phagocytophilum -like organisms from white-tailed deer may be closely related to A. phagocytophilum , they could be more diverse. These results suggest that A. phagocytophilum strains from ruminants could share some common characteristics, including reservoirs and pathogenicity, which may be different from strains that infect humans.

The vectors of bluetongue virus are certain species of Culicoides biting midges, and in the Mediterranean area Culicoides imicola has long been considered to be the only field vector. In Sicily an entomological and serological surveillance programme has been in operation since the autumn of 2000, which has shown that the prevalence and abundance of C imicola is lower than in many other Italian regions. Moreover, in 2002, there were outbreaks of bluetongue in the absence of C imicola , and in these regions bluetongue viral RNA was detected by means of a nested reverse‐transcriptase PCR in wild‐caught, non‐blood‐engorged, parous Culicoides pulicaris . Furthermore, bluetongue virus serotype 2 was isolated on five occasions from extracts of non‐blood‐engorged parous C pulicaris by using embryonated hens eggs and BHK‐21 cells as assay systems. These findings suggest that in parts of Italy and possibly in other areas of Europe, where C imicola is absent or rare, C pulicaris may act as a fully competent vector of bluetongue virus.

Organisms in the genus Anaplasma are obligate intracellular pathogens that multiply in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. The type species, A. marginale, causes bovine anaplasmosis and only infects ticks and ruminants. A. phagocytophilum causes human and animal granulocytic anaplasmosis, and genetically closely related strains show a wide host range, including ticks, ruminants, rodents, equids, canids, birds, and humans. Recent reports demonstrated that A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum co-exist in geographic areas and that concurrent infections occur in ruminants and ticks. In this study, we characterized A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum infections in wild and domestic animals, and ticks collected in central Spain by serology, PCR, and sequence of 16S rRNA genotypes. Species tested included humans, cattle, dogs, rodents, Iberian red deer, European wild boar, birds, and ticks. Species of hematophagous Diptera were analyzed as potential mechanical vectors of Anaplasma spp. A. marginale was detected in tabanids, ticks, cattle, and deer, while A. phagocytophilum was detected in ticks, deer, cattle, and birds. Concurrent infections of the two Anaplasma were found in cattle and deer. These results illustrate the complexity of the epizootiology of A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum in regions where both pathogens co-exist and share common reservoir hosts and vectors. The increasing contact between wildlife, domestic animals, and human populations increases the risk of outbreaks of human and bovine anaplasmosis, and the difficulty of implementing surveillance and control measures. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 5, 390–401.

SUMMARY: The hard tickIxodes ricinus(Ixodidae) is the sole animal thus far shown to harbour an intra-mitochondrial bacterium, which has recently been namedMidichloria mitochondrii. The objectives of this work were (i) to screen ixodid ticks forMidichloria-related bacteria and (ii) to determine whether these bacteria exploit the intra-mitochondrial niche in other tick species. Our main goal was to discover further models of this peculiar form of symbiosis. We have thus performed a PCR screening forMidichloria-related bacteria in samples of ixodid ticks collected in Italy, North America and Iceland. A total of 7 newly examined species from 5 genera were found positive for bacteria closely related toM. mitochondrii. Samples of the tick speciesRhipicephalus bursa, found positive in the PCR screening, were analysed with transmission electron microscopy, which revealed the presence of bacteria both in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria of the oocytes. There is thus evidence that bacteria invade mitochondria in at least 2 tick species. Phylogenetic analysis on the bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences generated from positive specimens revealed that the bacteria form a monophyletic group within the order Rickettsiales. The phylogeny ofMidichloriasymbionts and related bacteria does not appear completely congruent with the phylogeny of the hosts.