The dynamic and heterogeneity of the urban heat island (UHI) is the result of the interactions between biotic, physical, social, and built components. Urban ecology as a transdisciplinary science can provide a context to understand the complex social–biophysical issues such as the thermal environment in cities. This study aimed at developing a theoretical framework to elucidate the interactions between the social–biophysical patterns and processes mediating UHI. To do it, we conducted a theoretical review to delineate UHI complexity using the concept of dynamic heterogeneity of pattern, process, and function in UHI phenomenon. Furthermore, a hypothetical heterogeneity spiral (i.e., driver-outcome spiral) related to the UHI was conceived as a model template. The adopted theoretical framework can provide a holistic vision of the UHI, contributing to a better understanding of UHI’s spatial variations in long-term studies. Through the developed framework, we can devise appropriate methodological approaches (i.e., statistic-based techniques) to develop prediction models of UHI’s spatial heterogeneity.

Globally, urbanization changes land use/land cover (LULC) and alters ecosystem functions and services. Soil retention (SR) is a critical ecological service that is strongly related to LULC change. The topic of this study is assessment of LULC change on soil retention service (SRS) in a fragile seminatural-urbanized landscape of the Jajrood basin in Northern Tehran, Iran, from 2000 to 2020. To achieve the goal, the LULC maps and the other relevant datasets were imported into the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs tool (InVEST) using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Calibration and validation were performed using Goodness-of-fit test for observational and modeled data. The results revealed that LULC change had both negative and positive effects on SR. The built-up area increased dramatically by about 133 percent, while the rangeland shrunk by approximately 5 % during the twenty-year, leading to an increase in soil erosion and reducing SR. On the other hand, the agricultural and gardening activities expanded by 41 %, which caused an increment in SR. Due to the outgrowth of man-made areas compared to the other land uses, the overall SR decreased by about 17,000 tons. Moreover, the result indicated that slope, elevation, and land management factors, respectively, had the highest correlation with SRS. The finding of this research can provide insight to land use planners to protect the areas with high soil erosion.