Sand filters have been shown to be an economic and effective solution for wastewater treatment in private households, although the removal of phosphorus (P) may be insufficient. However, P removal can be improved by adding a P-adsorbing material, such as biotite, into the sand filters. The physico-chemical characteristics and the microbial quality of the effluents of family-scale sand filters without adsorbing media (SF), sand filters with a biotite layer (B), and sand filters with a modular filter (MB) were followed for one year. Sand filters with a biotite layer displayed the highest capacity to remove nitrogen (N) and biological oxygen demand BOD₇. The efficiency of these filters did not depend on the age of the filter or the season. The P load of the effluent did not differ between sand filters with and without a biotite layer, but the modular sand filter failed to adequately reduce P. The treatment efficiency of sand filters without biotite decreased with increasing age. These private household sand filters can be a good way to treat domestic wastewaters, since these generally comply with the minimum requirements of a Finnish Decree (157/2017). However, enteric viruses (noro- and adenoviruses) were commonly found in the effluents, and the numbers of Escherichia coli were often above 10³ colony forming units (CFU) 100 mL⁻¹ (limit for the the EU Bathing Water Directive 2006/7/EC) for good water quality), signifying a risk of microbial contamination of nearby drinking water wells, as well as bathing and irrigation waters.

Domestic wastewaters, which cannot be disposed through sewage networks, must be treated with different on-site treatment systems; these are usually commercial, small-scale treatment plants or built sand filters. These systems are usually maintained by the house’s inhabitants. This study was achieved by analysing the chemical and microbiological data of 717 effluents collected in Finland and Sweden. There were inadequate reductions in 31% of phosphorus effluents, 22% of nitrogen effluents and 5% of biological oxygen demand compounds. The addition of a coagulant capable of precipitating phosphorus improved the performance of sand filters and biorotors. There are no legally binding limitations on the number of enteric microorganisms that can be present in an effluent, but the number of Escherichia coli and enterococci exceeded more than 100 colony forming units per 100 mL in 59% and 53% effluents studied, with the highest numbers for these indicators being more than 100,000 cfu per 100 mL. The number of E. coli and enterococci were lower when the concentration of phosphorus in effluent was less than 1 mg/L. The treatment efficiency varied extensively, even between similar plant models, possibly due to either irregular use, or after long pauses, when they were not being used. In addition, it is possible that the end users are not capable of properly maintaining these wastewater treatment plants.

The removal efficiencies of bacteria, bacterial spores, and viruses after a change in source water and water pH in coagulation were studied at pilot scale in coagulation with flotation, rapid sand filtration, and disinfection with UV and chlorine. The results were compared to the treatment efficiencies of full-scale waterworks and data from literature. A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA)-method was applied to estimate the numbers of illness cases caused by Campylobacter and norovirus after simulation of six operational malfunction scenarios. Coagulation with flotation and disinfection were more efficient in removing Clostridium spp. spores and MS2 coliphages than sand filtration in the pilot scale experiments (p < 0.001–0.008). The removal of E. coli was more efficient in sand filtration and in disinfection compared to coagulation with flotation (p = 0.006 and 0.01). Source water or pH change in coagulation had not significant effects on the removal efficiency of microbes. In QMRA, when disinfection was not in use, an increase in the number of illness cases compared to the normal situation was noticed. The variability in the number of illness cases demonstrated the importance of site-specific data in QMRA. This study provides new information on applying QMRA in both pilot and full-scale waterworks.

In sparsely populated areas, sand filter beds play an important role in wastewater treatment. As the need to improve the removal of nutrients increases, reactive filter materials represent one potential way to improve the reliability of current systems. We tested a pilot-scale multi-layer biotite filter for its ability to remove phosphorus, nitrogen, organic matter and enteric microorganisms with the importance of each layer in a multi-layer biotite filter being examined. In the experimental setup, the filters were fed with a raw wastewater influent mimicking the usual daily rhythm of water consumption and the reduction effects of the variable loads were examined during the experiment time of 54 weeks. It was observed that the reduction efficiency of the phosphorus was good (87%) during normal and under loading sequences but the reduction achieved for nitrogen was poor (27%). During and after overloading sequences, the phosphorus reduction was poor (46.5%) whereas the nitrogen reduction improved (to 66.7%). The reduction of organic matter was good during all sequences. The reductions of enteric microorganisms were at a level of 2–3 log₁₀ units already after a single sand layer. For Escherichia coli, reductions of more than 5 log₁₀ units were found after the wastewater had passed through a multilayer biotite filter during all sequences. It is concluded that the inclusion of a biotite layer improves the reliability of the filter bed. However, the proper scaling of the unit is essential in order to guarantee that the filter remains in aerobic conditions.