Efficient use of available resources in agricultural production is important to minimize carbon footprint considering the state of climate change. In this context, the current research was conducted to identify carbon and energy-efficient fodder cropping systems for sustainable livestock production. Annual monocropping, perennial monocropping, annual cereal + legume intercropping and perennial cereal + legume intercropping systems were evaluated by employing a randomized complete block design with three replications under field conditions. The lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) monocropping system recorded significantly lower carbon input (274 kg-CE ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and showed higher carbon indices viz., carbon sustainability index (165.8), the carbon efficiency ratio (166.8) and carbon efficiency (347.5 kg kg-CE⁻¹) over other systems. However, higher green fodder biomass led to statistically higher carbon output (78,542 kg-CE ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) in the Bajra–Napier hybrid (Pennisetum glaucum × Pennisetum purpureum) + lucerne perennial system. Similar to carbon input, lower input energy requirement (16,106 MJ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and nutrient energy ratio (25.7) were estimated with the lucerne perennial system. However, significantly higher energy output (376,345 and 357,011 MJ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and energy indices viz., energy use efficiency (13.3 and 12.2), energy productivity (5.8 and 5.3 kg MJ⁻¹), net energy (327,811 and 347,961 MJ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and energy use efficiency (12.3 and 11.2) were recorded with Bajra–Napier hybrid + legume [lucerne and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)] cropping systems, respectively. However, these systems were on par with the lucerne monocropping system. Additionally, Bajra–Napier hybrid + legume [cowpea, sesbania (Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.) and lucerne] cropping systems also showed higher human energy profitability. Concerning various inputs’ contribution to total carbon and energy input, chemical fertilizers were identified as the major contributors (73 and 47%), followed by farmyard manure (20 and 22%) used to cultivate crops, respectively, across the cropping systems. Extensive use of indirect (82%) and non-renewable energy sources (69%) was noticed compared to direct (18%) and renewable energy sources (31%). Overall, perennial monocropping and cereal + legume cropping systems performed well in terms of carbon and energy efficiency. However, in green biomass production and carbon and energy efficiency, Bajra–Napier hybrid + legume (lucerne and cowpea) cropping systems were identified as the best systems for climate-smart livestock feed production.

The quantity and quality of forage and fodder crops is the major drawback of the livestock sector in the country. There is a need to bridge the gap between the supply and demand of fodder through the adoption of specific sustainable fodder production strategies. The field experiments were conducted during kharif (rainy, June–October), rabi (post-rainy, October–February), and summer (March–May) seasons of 2018–19 and 2019–20 to identify a sustainable fodder cropping system module in randomized complete block design with fifteen fodder cropping systems in three replications. The main objective of this research was to identify the most productive cereal–legume cropping system, both in terms of quantity and quality of biomass, to reduce the gap between supply and demand of quality livestock feed around the year. Among cropping systems, Bajra–Napier hybrid intercropped with lucerne, cowpea, and sesbania recorded significantly higher green fodder (163.6, 155.2, and 144.0 t/ha/year, respectively) and dry matter yields (32.1, 30.8, and 31.3 t/ha/year, respectively). Similarly, the same perennial systems also recorded higher quality yield and ash content. However, higher crude protein content was noticed in monocrop legumes, with the highest in sesbania (22.32%), while higher ether extractable fat was found in monocrop sesbania (3.78%). The monocrop oats recorded higher non-fiber carbohydrates (36.90%) while a monocrop of pearl millet recorded higher total carbohydrates (80.75%), however they were on par with other monocrop cereal cropping systems. Cultivation of legumes as a monocrop, and their inclusion as an intercrop with cereals resulted in lower fiber fractions and improved crude protein in intercropping systems. Furthermore, this improved the dry matter intake and digestibility of fodder. With higher sustainable yield index values and land-use efficiency, perennial intercropping systems were also found to be sustainable. Thus, cultivation of the Bajra–Napier hybrid with either lucerne, cowpea, or sesbania as an intercrop will help livestock farmers to achieve higher productivity in terms of quantity and quality, and forms a viable option for overcoming livestock feed scarcity.