In order to feed the growing population, agriculture is a vital component of any country; however, pests pose a constant threat to it. Chemical pesticides are employed to safeguard the crops from the enormous yield loss. These chemical pesticides are boundless in killing crop pests; however, they have detrimental effects on the health of both humans and the environment. Therefore, biological control techniques are being utilised after identifying an environmentally suitable substitute. Due to its well-known biological control mechanism, Trichoderma spp. have been utilised extensively in agricultural applications. The host plants soil and rhizosphere serve as shelter place for Trichoderma. It has the ability to create a variety of secondary metabolites and secretion of important enzymes. Clarification of Trichodermas importance in the prevention and treatment of plant diseases is thus important in order to advance sustainable agriculture. The mechanisms, which include mycoparasitism, antibiosis and competition aid in the management of insect pests and plant pathogens in the soil, seeds, roots, stems, leaves, etc. It is crucial to create new formulations of biocontrol microorganisms with a greater level of stability and survivability in order to implement biocontrol technology in the field and enhance its commercialisation.

Forest plays an important role not only in providing ecological services but also economic goods to human beings. However, with increase in population there is a wide gap between demand and supply of these goods and services. This has lead to reduction in forest cover which needs to be taken care on regular time interval. To manage the existing forest area and also to increase the forest cover Forest Canopy Density (FCD) methodology is the main factor which was given by International Tropical timber Organization (ITTO). High resolution remote sensing LISS-4 data gives us chance to assess the quality of forest in terms of FCD as Rikimaru et al (1999) stated that FCD is one important parameter to assess forest cover quality. High resolution LISS-4 data analysis for FCD was never attempted before. Authors here attempted to assess the FCD utilizing methodology adopted by Rikimaru (1999), Huang (2001), Azizia (2008). The adopted methodology is one of the most efficient and cost effective way to derive the FCD. For this study Resourcesat-2 LISS-4 post monsoon data of year 2017 for Yamunanagar district was used to assess FCD within notified forest boundary. Notified forest boundaries at cadastral level prepared previously by Haryana Space Applications Centre (HARSAC) was used. The degree of forest canopy density is expressed in percentages: i.e. < 10% FCD (scrub land), 10–20% (Open Forest-I), 20–40% (Open Forest-II), 40–60% (Moderate Dense), 60–80% (Medium Dense) and > 80% (Highly Dense). Forest Canopy Density was based on three indices i.e. Advanced Vegetation Index (AVI), Bare Soil Index (BSI) and Canopy Shadow Index (CSI). Accuracy assessment was done based on ground data and comparison with Coterminous Google Earth imagery and it was found that the devised methodology has achieved overall accuracy of 93% with kappa coefficient of 0.9153. The result shows that maximum forest area in Yamunanagar district is in medium dense FCD category which is approximately 23948.08 acres. This study tells us that 24.2% of the total forest area is under scrub land and open forest which should be focussed for activities in working plan to increase the forest cover. This paper highlights the utility of high resolution satellite data for monitoring and management of forest and improvement in its quality. This attempt provided large scale (1 : 10,000) maps to the forest managers to better equip them in planning for afforestation, reforestation and rehabilitation of water logged areas, environment management and their future aspect.

The decline of honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) populations is of great concern around the world. Among the several key drivers, dissemination of pests and pathogens is potential one. Chalkbrood is very common fungal disease of honey bee, caused due to Ascosphaera apis. In the present study, survey was conducted regarding the prevalence of diseases in A. mellifera beekeeping in Gangetic plains of West Bengal, India. Results confirmed the occurrence of chalkbrood disease in different apiaries, where dead and mummified bee larvae with cotton like chalky white or greyish-black covering were found as physical symptoms of the disease. From three surveyed apiaries, a total of 16 hives out of 113 hives were found to be infected with the diseases; and 46 frames out of 132 frames from the infected 16 hives were found to be affected by the pathogen. Microscopic examination reflected that nearly 87% of the samples collected from the infected frame were found to be positive for the spore of Ascosphaera. The fungus associated with the disease was isolated on Potato Dextrose Agar medium, pure cultured and its genomic DNA was isolated to perform PCR and based on 18s rDNA sequencing by using specific primer pair of ITS-1 and ITS-4, the fungus was identified as Ascosphaera apis. Keywords: 18s rDNA, Bees, Necrotrophs, Phylogeny

Aflatoxin being a serious threat to public health and international trade, necessi-tates a comprehensive understanding and calculated response with effective inter-vention strategies. This review methodically looks at several aspects of aflatoxin, starting with how it affects international trade laws through feed and feed ingre-dient regulations. Aflatoxin contamination poses serious challenges to world health and the economy, especially in areas that are already at risk. Examining the varia-bles affecting aflatoxin toxicity, the paper clarifies aflatoxin toxicity's complex me-tabolism and the resulting health effects of exposure. The serious repercussions of aflatoxicosis outbreaks and their connections to illnesses like Aspergillosis and cancer are highlighted by a detailed exploration of prospective decontamination techniques as well as strategies for detecting and capturing aflatoxin. A thorough knowledge of the factors that contribute to aflatoxin contamination demonstrates the intricate interactions between environmental variables, farming methods, stor-age circumstances, and different physical, biological, and nutritional components. Strong detection strategies are required due to aflatoxins’ significant effects on an-imal and human health. The paper describes complete preventative tactics that en-compass manipulation in management strategies. global trade and public health from this pervasive threat.

Climate change is intensifying the complexity and severity of pest–pathogen interactions in agriculture, threatening global food security. Rising temperatures, elevated CO ₂ levels, shifting precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events are reshaping vector ecology, accelerating insect development, altering pathogen virulence, and disrupting plant defense systems. These changes enhance the frequency of co‐infections, increase herbivore pressures, and promote the emergence and spread of invasive pests and diseases, such as maize lethal necrosis and citrus greening. At the plant level, hormonal crosstalk between salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) pathways is disrupted, undermining resistance mechanisms, particularly under high temperatures and altered carbon‐to‐nitrogen ratios. Resistance genes and quantitative resistance are increasingly compromised, while existing integrated pest management (IPM) strategies face reduced efficacy due to climate‐sensitive biocontrol agents and pesticides. Effective mitigation demands a paradigm shift toward climate‐resilient crop protection strategies. This includes forecasting models, adaptive surveillance systems, microbiome engineering, and agroecological diversification. Regional vulnerabilities further necessitate context‐specific adaptation and crop breeding approaches. Bridging current knowledge gaps requires long‐term, multifactorial field studies and interdisciplinary research that integrates plant physiology, entomology, pathology, and climatology to develop holistic and future‐ready solutions.