Indonesia is likely to face a water crisis due to mismanagement of water resources, inefficient water systems, and weak institutions and regulatory organizations. In 2020, most of the fresh water in Indonesia was used for irrigation (74%) to support the agricultural sector, which occupies 30% of the total land area in Indonesia. Of all agricultural commodities, rice is one of the major and essential commodities, as it is the basic staple food for almost every Indonesian. However, in 2018, the Ministry of Public Works and Housing (MoPWH) reported that 46% of Indonesian irrigation infrastructure is moderately to heavily damaged. Looking at how irrigation can be very crucial to the welfare of Indonesian population, this study conducted an extensive literature review of the historical, current, and future management of irrigated rice production systems in Indonesia. This study has clearly shown that the irrigation systems in Indonesia have existed for thousands of years and, thus, there is a close relationship between irrigation and the socio-cultural life of the Indonesian population. Aside from how climate change influences water availability for irrigation, rice production with a constant water ponding system has been found to contribute to climate change, as it emits methane (CH₄) and other greenhouse gases from agricultural fields of Indonesia. Therefore, the required modernization of irrigation systems in Indonesia needs to consider several factors, such as food demands for the increasing population and the impact of irrigated agriculture on global warming. Multi-stakeholders, such as the government, farmers, water user associations (WUA), and local research institutions, need to work together on the modernization of irrigation systems in Indonesia to meet the increasing food demands of the growing population and to minimize the impacts of agriculture on climate change.

Population and the massive construction of public facilities increased land demand. The southern region of Kulon Progo is one area that has a lot of land conversion due to population growth, the construction of the New Yogyakarta International Airport (NYIA), and the construction of Southern Cross Road (JJLS). The purpose of this study was to determine the conversion rate of land in the form of paddy fields to the condition of food security and to predict the limit of food self-sufficiency (rice) based on the availability of paddy fields in the southern area of Kulon Progo. Identification of land-use change was carried out using the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform based on five land cover classes: water bodies, paddy fields, vegetation, built-up land, and open land with variations in 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020. Data processing was conducted gradually, including composite image process, NDVI calculation process, supervised classification, field validation, calculation of food security based on food production, and prediction of food self-sufficiency limit in rice. This study revealed the rate of conversion of paddy fields in the period 2005-2010, 2010-2015 was 45.43 ha/year, -79.90 hectare/year, and in the 2015-2020 period, there was a significant increase to 85.81 ha/yr due to new paddy fields. The research locations were in food-secure conditions for the four sub-districts, namely Galur, Panjatan, Wates, and Temon in 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020, except for Wates in 2005 showed food insecurity conditions. Prediction of food self-sufficiency limit in rice may occur in the next 48.48 years (2068) with an available agricultural land area of 1345.04 hectares. The consideration used was that food availability only comes from the research area. Besides, there is no effort to increase the intensification or extensification of paddy fields. Another assumption was the rate of conversion of agricultural land, and population growth is constant.

Enclosed topographical depressions that retain water intermittently are abundant across the prairie pothole region of the United States. These depressional wetlands (potholes) are located at local minimum elevations with small contributing micro‐watersheds. These features are often located in areas where the primary land use is row crop agriculture; thus subsurface tile drainage has been implemented to improve crop production and field accessibility. However, even with drainage improvements, farmed potholes still tend to retain water during high precipitation periods. This study monitored 10 farmed potholes in 2018, a year with 32% more precipitation than the 30‐year average. Potholes were inundated between 12% and 81% of the monitored growing season; the highest inundation percentage occurred in a pothole without surface intakes. Nutrient concentrations in 2018 were lower on average than previously reported for the same potholes, possibly due to higher precipitation and less fertilizer applied because most of the potholes were in soybeans rather than corn. Total nitrogen and nitrate‐N median concentrations were 16.71 and 14.82 mg N L⁻¹ lower (p‐value < 0.0001) during the early season (May 15–July 7) than concentrations in 2016–2017. Total phosphorus and dissolved reactive P median concentrations, conversely, were slightly but significantly lower during the late season (July 8–November 1) with 0.15 and 0.13 mg P L⁻¹ difference (p‐value < 0.01), respectively. Observed DRP concentrations increased by 63% during multiday inundation periods. Our monitoring results suggest during seasons of heavy precipitation, farmed potholes might act as hotspots, contributing elevated levels of P to downstream waters.

Soil erosion is a natural phenomenon of a landscape system. However, its occurrence has become a threat to the environment and human welfare when populations and human needs increase, especially in agriculture. Erosion can lead to soil deprivation and reduction of soil fertility that resulted in the decline of agricultural productivity and loss of arable land. Complex processes of soil erosion due to detachment, transport, and deposition, strictly depend on climatic, topographic, and biotic factors. Erosion can be worsened by extreme climate, that lately overrides, as the key-geomorphological process of erosion. Therefore, this research is aimed to understand how biotic factors such as different surface coverages can affect erosion within marginal agricultural soil. This study developed a small-scale erosion simulator with erosion pans and rain simulator. Standard small size erosion pan with width x length x depth of 32 x 45 x 20 cm and slope of 10° was used to simulate the erosion processes. Two erosion pans were planted with peanut (Arachis hypogaea) and shallot (Allium cepa var. Aggregatum). Furthermore, the other two were covered by litter and bare soil. Rain simulator was installed in 3 m of height and produced approximately 160 mm/hr of rain. Runoff water and eroded soil were collected and analyzed to find the amount of soil and water losses. From this experiment, it has shown that our proposed small-scale erosion simulator effectively demonstrates erosion and water runoff. This study found that soil erosion rates among plots were highly variable associated with the type of surface coverage. Variabilities soil coverage decrease the impact of raindrop and soil detachment.