Background: Oaxaca is one of the most diverse states in Mexico from biological and cultural points of view. Different ethnic groups living there maintain deep and ancestral traditional knowledge of medicinal plants as well as traditional practices and beliefs about diseases/illnesses and cures. Previous ethnobotanical research in this state has helped document this knowledge, but with the addition of more studies, more records appear. We updated the inventory of medicinal knowledge between the different ethnic groups that inhabit the Oaxacan territory. Methods: A database was constructed from two sources: (1) original data from a 3-year project in 84 municipalities of Oaxaca inhabited by eight ethnic groups and (2) different electronic databases. Results: Records of 1032 medicinal plants were obtained; 164 families were registered, with Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Rubiaceae being the most commonly used. A total of 770 species were reported in 14 vegetation types; the most important species came from temperate forests. Only 144 species corresponded to introduced species, and 272 were listed in a risk category. Illnesses of the digestive and genitourinary systems as well as culture-bound syndromes were treated with high numbers of medicinal plants. The Mestizo, Mixe, Mixtec, and Zapotec ethnic groups exhibited the greatest number of recorded medicinal plants. The 17 species that were used among almost all ethnic groups in Oaxaca were also used to cure the highest number of diseases. Discussion: Inventories of medicinal plants confirm the persistence of traditional knowledge and reflect the need to recognize and respect this cosmovision. Many species are gathered in wild environments. The most important illnesses or diseases recorded in the present inventory are also mentioned in different studies, suggesting that they are common health problems in the rural communities of Mexico. Conclusions: Medicinal plants are essential for ethnic groups in Oaxaca. It is necessary to recognize and understand the complex ancestral processes involved in the human-nature interaction and the role of these processes in the conservation of biodiversity and in the survivorship of ethnic groups that have persisted for centuries. Finally, this study serves as a wake-up call to respect those worldviews.

Antecedentes: La intensidad de manejo en plantas está influida por factores socioecológicos, destacando el valor económico y la disponibilidad espacial de los recursos. Agave karwinskii es un recurso cultural, económica y ecológicamente relevante, con alta diversidad morfológica, la cual se refleja en la compleja nomenclatura tradicional. Algunos etnotaxones son mayormente valorados y enfrentan fuertes presiones debidas al auge en la demanda de mezcal. Preguntas y/o hipótesis: ¿Cuáles etnotaxa de Agave karwinskii y con qué intensidad son manejados en su área de distribución? Los etnotaxa que son aprovechados para elaborar mezcales presentarán formas más intensas de manejo debido a su alto valor y demanda. Se identificarán distintas prácticas de manejo, desde las más incipientes hasta las más complejas, en función de su valor y disponibilidad. Especie en estudio: Agave karwinskii Zucc. Sitio de estudio y fechas: Puebla y Oaxaca, México. 2017-2018 Me?todos: Se realizaron 43 entrevistas semiestructuradas a propietarios de fábricas de mezcal en el área de distribución. Se preguntó acerca del manejo de los distintos etnotaxa, prácticas de selección, atributos, valoración cultural y económica. Se calculó un índice de intensidad de manejo mediante un análisis de componentes principales. Resultados: Se reconocieron 11 etnotaxones de A. karwinskii , principalmente para producir mezcal y como cerco vivo. Estos formaron tres grupos, correspondiendo a un gradiente de intensidad de manejo. Destacan aquellos que se propagan vegetativamente y se siembran por semilla en espacios antropogénicos. Conclusiones: Se advierten procesos selectivos, los cuales pueden marcar rasgos de domesticación incipiente, como tamaños de roseta más grandes.

The ethnobotanical importance of the family Piperaceae is recognized mainly for its medicinal properties. A total of 106 species of two genera of this family (Piper and Peperomia) have been collected in Oaxaca, but only 18 are recorded in scientific publications as medicinal, edible, veterinary, or ritual plants. The objectives of this study are to describe the traditional knowledge and uses of the Piperaceae in areas of high biocultural diversity of Oaxaca and to analyze the relationship between its geographic distribution with ethnobotanical records among ethnic groups. Fieldwork was carried out between 2013 and 2016, and voucher specimens were reviewed in Mexican herbaria. Two multivariate analyses were applied to compare the geographic distribution of Piperaceae with ethnobotanical knowledge in Oaxaca. A total of 13 species of Peperomia, and 7 of Piper were collected, besides some unidentified species of both genera. Seven use categories were registered, with medicinal and edible being the most important. A high percentage (65%) of the species is named in at least one native language. Most species have a single use, mainly medicinal. Peperomia has been collected in Oaxaca since 1980, while Piper since 1960. Multivariate analysis indicated the existence of a differentiated ethnobotanical knowledge of this family among ethnic groups, related to the geographic distribution of species. This study evidences that ethnic groups, who maintain areas of higher biodiversity, obtain these species mainly from the wild, from specific microenvironments; hence, conservation practices must be reinforced for them, as for all ecosystems in general.

Background: Field observations of damage in columnar cacti of central Mexico, and previous evidence in scientific literature, indicated the absence of systematic information about kinds of damage, vectors, and pathogens, in this botanical family. Questions: How is the knowledge of damage and defense mechanisms in cacti? Is there a pattern in causal agents and their geographical distribution in the Americas? Methods: A database of 58 taxa by 51 types of damage was developed from literature recorded in ISI Web of Knowledge, Cabdirect, and Google Scholar, and it was analyzed by multivariate methods. Results: From 1,500 species of Cactaceae, only 58 have been studied through this scope. Subfamily Cactoideae has been the most studied, in particular tribe Echinocereeae (= Pachycereeae columnar cacti). Multivariate analysis grouped cacti according to the kind of damage: biotic, or abiotic. Damage due to biotic factors was sub-grouped depending on the herbivores. Damage by abiotic factors is more frequent in extreme latitudes. Fourteen species of columnar cacti were reported with herbivory and rot damage in Central Mexico, of which eight represent new records of damaged cacti. Conclusions: The evidence from field observations, and few recent publications suggest that some generalist herbivores are becoming dangerous in this region, Future research is necessary in order to understand the dynamics of the dispersion of some kinds of damage, the role of human disturbance, and the role and changes in defense mechanisms in wild and domesticated cacti.

Antecedentes y Objetivos: En México existen alrededor de 156 especies de gimnospermas nativas pertenecientes a seis familias. Para el estado de Oaxaca, se registran 45 especies de gimnospermas y sus habitantes poseen un sobresaliente conocimiento ancestral en el uso tradicional de este grupo taxonómico. El presente estudio contribuye al registro y documentación del conocimiento tradicional de las gimnospermas en Oaxaca, a evaluar la importancia de las familias botánicas como fuente de recursos, analizar las relaciones existentes entre los grupos étnicos y la riqueza de especies útiles, así como a comparar los registros obtenidos con el número de gimnospermas a nivel nacional y estatal. Métodos: El estudio se realizó en 84 municipios en tres Regiones Terrestres Prioritarias al noreste de Oaxaca. Los datos etnobotánicos fueron recopilados mediante observación participante moderada, caminatas etnobotánicas, entrevista libre a guías locales y colecta de ejemplares botánicos. Los datos se analizaron cualitativamente para integrar el conocimiento tradicional, etnoflorístico y los aspectos ecológicos de las especies. Resultados clave: Se registraron 30 especies de las familias Cupressaceae, Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae y Zamiaceae. El mayor número de especies útiles (16) registradas pertenece a Pinaceae. Entre los zapotecos se encontraron usos para 16 diferentes especies, los mixes utilizan diez y los mazatecos nueve. Todos los taxa registrados tienen nombre común, 71% en lengua local y 97% en español. Los usos más frecuentes fueron el maderable, la construcción, el ornamental y el combustible. El bosque mesófilo de montaña es el tipo de vegetación del área estudiada que contiene el mayor número de gimnospermas útiles, con 15 especies. De los taxa registrados 45% son endémicos de México, seis especies de Pinaceae y ocho de Zamiaceae se consideran endémicos de Oaxaca. Conclusiones: Este estudio incrementa los registros sobre gimnospermas útiles en el estado de Oaxaca. Se requiere reconsiderar y entender el valor local de estas especies dentro de la cosmovisión étnica, para preservar los usos tradicionales y promover programas de manejo sostenible.