Infectious threats to humans are continuously emerging. The 2022 worldwide monkeypox outbreak is the latest of these threats with the virus rapidly spreading to 106 countries by the end of September 2022. The burden of the ongoing monkeypox outbreak is manifested by 68,000 cumulative confirmed cases and 26 deaths. Although monkeypox is usually a self-limited disease, patients can suffer from extremely painful skin lesions and complications can occur with reported mortalities. The antigenic similarity between the smallpox virus (variola virus) and monkeypox virus can be utilized to prevent monkeypox using smallpox vaccines; treatment is also based on antivirals initially designed to treat smallpox. However, further studies are needed to fully decipher the immune response to monkeypox virus and the immune evasion mechanisms. In this review we provide an up-to-date discussion of the current state of knowledge regarding monkeypox virus with a special focus on innate immune response, immune evasion mechanisms and vaccination against the virus.

The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCov) has been implicated in the outbreak of an uncommon pneumonia in Chinese City of Wuhan, Hubei Province first reported in late December 2019. Since then, infection has spread to other Chinese cities, as well as internationally, threatening to trigger a pandemic. On January 30 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) in an effort to slow down the global spread of the virus declared the outbreak, “A global public health emergency of international concern”. As at the time of this review, there were more than 31 000 confirmed cases and 638 deaths reported globally. Controversies exist on the origin of the virus with diverse views. The swift rise in morbidity and mortality rate of the virus has caused widespread alarm in China and other parts of the world. This review is aimed at providing relevant information on the possible origin of the virus, its mode of transmission, associated risk factors, existing controversies, consequences of the current trend and control interventions required to halt the widespread of the new coronavirus outbreak.

Vaccine hesitancy is considered as one of the greatest challenges to control the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. A related challenge is the unwillingness of the general public to pay for vaccination. The objective of this study was to determine willingness-to-pay (WTP) for COVID-19 vaccine among individuals from ten low-middle-income countries (LMICs) in Asia, Africa, and South America. Data were collected using an online questionnaire distributed during February - May 2021 in ten LMICs (Bangladesh, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, India, Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sudan, and Tunisia). The major response variable of in this study was WTP for a COVID-19 vaccine. The assessment of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy was based on items adopted from the World Health Organization (WHO) Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) vaccine hesitancy scale constructs. In this study, 1337 respondents included in the final analysis where the highest number of respondents was from India, while the lowest number was from Egypt. A total of 88.9% (1188/1337) respondents were willing to pay for the COVID-19 vaccination, and 11.1% (149/1337) were not. The average WTP for COVID-19 vaccination was 87.9 US dollars ($), (range: $5-$200). The multivariate model analysis showed that the country, monthly household income, having a history of respiratory disease, the agreement that routine vaccines recommended by health workers are beneficial and having received the flu vaccination within the previous 12 months were strongly associated with the WTP. Based on the country of origin, the highest mean WTP for COVID-19 vaccine was reported in Chile, while the lowest mean WTP for the vaccine was seen among the respondents from Sudan. The availability of free COVID-19 vaccination services appears as a top priority in the LMICs for successful control of the ongoing pandemic. This is particularly important for individuals of a lower socio-economic status. The effects of complacency regarding COVID-19 extends beyond vaccine hesitancy to involve less willingness to pay for COVID-19 vaccine and a lower value of WTP for the vaccine.

Dengue Fever remains a pressing public health concern in the Global South, including in Africa, where limited resources, inadequate surveillance, weak health systems, climate change, and urbanization exacerbate the threat. This review study focuses on strategies to strengthen preparedness, capacity building efforts on surveillance, vector control, health system strengthening, community engagement, and research. Investing in training programs, research initiatives, and regional collaboration is vital. Advocacy for increased political commitment and resource allocation is necessary to drive policy support. African nations are actively contributing to global Dengue control efforts, showcasing resilience amidst adversity. There are promising prospects for improvement. Enhanced surveillance, capacity building, community engagement, research, and regional collaboration are identified as crucial strategies. Strengthening surveillance systems can provide accurate data for targeted interventions, while investing in healthcare infrastructure and training can improve diagnosis and treatment capabilities. Community engagement and education efforts can promote preventive behaviours, and research initiatives drive progress in Dengue prevention and control. Additionally, regional collaboration fosters knowledge exchange and resource sharing. By addressing these challenges and capitalizing on emerging opportunities, Africa can further strengthen its contribution to global Dengue control efforts. Through sustained investment, collaboration, and innovation, Africa has the potential to mitigate Dengue's impact and inspire similar efforts worldwide. Advocacy for increased political commitment and resource allocation is essential to drive policy support. By prioritizing Dengue control and implementing sustainable interventions tailored to local contexts, Africa can enhance public health resilience and contribute significantly to the global fight against Dengue.

Background: Sex workers, like others, are facing economic hardships and anxiety about their health and safety due to coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), an infectious disease caused by a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Universally, most sex work has largely reduced, moved online, or undertaken covertly because of lockdown measures and need for social distancing to break the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. However, the ability of sex workers to protect themselves against COVID-19 depends on their individual and interpersonal behaviors and work environment. In this study, we sought to determine the relationships between COVID-19 knowledge, awareness and prevention practice (KAP) among female commercial sex workers (FCSW) in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria to inform the development of prevention interventions for this vulnerable population. Methods: Data used in this study were obtained from a cross-sectional survey of 604 FCSW operating in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. We used descriptive and inferential statistics to assess their socio-demographic characteristics and COVID-19 KAP adopted against the novel coronavirus. Latent class analysis was used to systematically classify participants’ attributes and behaviors into the most likely distinct clusters or risk groups. Results: The majority of the FCSW were singles (86.8%) of childbearing ages, 21– 35 years (86.2%), with almost three quarters (73.2%) of them having sex with 3– 4 clients per day during the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, almost three quarters of the participants had both good knowledge and awareness about COVID-19 but less than half of them (41.1%) implemented good practice to prevent the spread of the disease. However, a highly significant and positive relationship was recorded between COVID-19 knowledge (r=0.90, p< 0.0001) and awareness (r=0.65, p< 0.0001), and preventive practice of FCSW, respectively. About 89.1% of the participants were not very familiar with the symptoms of COVID-19 (p< 0.0001). Only 10.9% of the FCSW indicated that they wear facemask at all times, while 45.2% of them do not wear facemask during sexual intercourse with their clients (p< 0.0001). Based on the FCSW attributes and behaviors, we identified three distinct clusters or risk groups (p< 0.0001), namely, low-risk takers (Cluster 1), high-risk takers (Cluster 2) and very high-risk takers (Cluster 3) with latent class prevalence rates (γ_c) of 41.13% (95% CI: 37.26– 45.10), 33.17% (95% CI: 29.53– 37.02) and 25.71% (95% CI: 22.38– 29.34), respectively. Conclusion: Sex work has high transmission potentials for SARS-CoV-2 because of its operational nature, which does not permit social distancing, and thus, renders certain preventive measures practically ineffective. This is a major challenge in the fight against COVID-19 in this high-risk group and calls for the development of operational guidelines and targeted intervention strategies to help reduce the spread of COVID-19 in the Niger Delta region.

Background: Risk perceptions of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are considered important as they impact community health behaviors. The aim of this study was to determine the perceived risk of infection and death due to COVID-19 and to assess the factors associated with such risk perceptions among community members in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) in Africa, Asia, and South America. Methods: An online cross-sectional study was conducted in 10 LMICs in Africa, Asia, and South America from February to May 2021. A questionnaire was utilized to assess the perceived risk of infection and death from COVID-19 and its plausible determinants. A logistic regression model was used to identify the factors associated with such risk perceptions. Results: A total of 1,646 responses were included in the analysis of the perceived risk of becoming infected and dying from COVID-19. Our data suggested that 36.4% of participants had a high perceived risk of COVID-19 infection, while only 22.4% had a perceived risk of dying from COVID-19. Being a woman, working in healthcare-related sectors, contracting pulmonary disease, knowing people in the immediate social environment who are or have been infected with COVID-19, as well as seeing or reading about individuals infected with COVID-19 on social media or TV were all associated with a higher perceived risk of becoming infected with COVID-19. In addition, being a woman, elderly, having heart disease and pulmonary disease, knowing people in the immediate social environment who are or have been infected with COVID-19, and seeing or reading about individuals infected with COVID-19 on social media or TV had a higher perceived risk of dying from COVID-19. Conclusions: The perceived risk of infection and death due to COVID-19 are relatively low among respondents; this suggests the need to conduct health campaigns to disseminate knowledge and information on the ongoing pandemic.