To verify weather mangroves act as sinks for marine litter, we surveyed through visual census 20 forests along the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, both in inhabited and remote locations. Anthropogenic debris items were counted and classified along transects, and the influence of main drivers of distribution were considered (i.e. land-based and ocean-based sources, density of the forest and properties of the object). We confirmed that distance to major maritime traffic routes significantly affects the density of anthropogenic debris in Red Sea mangrove forests, while this was independent of land-based activities. This suggests ocean-based activities combined with surface currents as major drivers of litter in this basin. Additionally, litter was more abundant where the mangrove density was higher, and object distribution through the mangrove stand often depended on their shape and dimension. We particularly show that pneumatophores act as a sieve retaining large plastic objects, leading to higher plastic mass estimates in mangroves compared to those of beaches previously surveyed in the Red Sea.

Sequestration of plastics in sediments is considered the ultimate sink of marine plastic pollution that would justify unexpectedly low loads found in surface waters. Here, we demonstrate that mangroves, generally supporting high sediment accretion rates, efficiently sequester plastics in their sediments. To this end, we extracted microplastics from dated sediment cores of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf mangrove (Avicennia marina) forests along the Saudi Arabian coast. We found that microplastics <0.5 mm dominated in mangrove sediments, helping explain their scarcity, in surface waters. We estimate that 50 ± 30 and 110 ± 80 metric tons of plastic may have been buried since the 1930s in mangrove sediments across the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, respectively. We observed an exponential increase in the plastic burial rate (8.5 ± 1.2% year⁻¹) since the 1950s in line with the global plastic production increase, confirming mangrove sediments as long-term sinks for plastics.

Calcium carbonates (CaCO₃) often accumulate in mangrove and seagrass sediments. As CaCO₃ production emits CO₂, there is concern that this may partially offset the role of Blue Carbon ecosystems as CO₂ sinks through the burial of organic carbon (C_org). A global collection of data on inorganic carbon burial rates (C_inorg, 12% of CaCO₃ mass) revealed global rates of 0.8 TgC_inorg yr⁻¹ and 15–62 TgC_inorg yr⁻¹ in mangrove and seagrass ecosystems, respectively. In seagrass, CaCO₃ burial may correspond to an offset of 30% of the net CO₂ sequestration. However, a mass balance assessment highlights that the C_inorg burial is mainly supported by inputs from adjacent ecosystems rather than by local calcification, and that Blue Carbon ecosystems are sites of net CaCO₃ dissolution. Hence, CaCO₃ burial in Blue Carbon ecosystems contribute to seabed elevation and therefore buffers sea-level rise, without undermining their role as CO₂ sinks.

Mangroves forests of Avicennia marina occupy about 135 km² in the Red Sea and represent one of the most important vegetated communities in this otherwise arid and oligotrophic region. We assessed the soil organic carbon (C_org) stocks, soil accretion rates (SAR; mm y⁻¹) and soil C_org sequestration rates (g C_org m⁻² yr⁻¹) in 10 mangrove sites within four locations along the Saudi coast of the Central Red Sea. Soil C_org density and stock in Red Sea mangroves were among the lowest reported globally, with an average of 4 ± 0.3 mg C_org cm⁻³ and 43 ± 5 Mg C_org ha⁻¹ (in 1 m-thick soils), respectively. Sequestration rates of C_org, estimated at 3 ± 1 and 15 ± 1 g C_org m⁻² yr⁻¹ for the long (millennia) and short (last century) temporal scales, respectively, were also relatively low compared to mangrove habitats from more humid bioregions. In contrast, the accretion rates of Central Red Sea mangroves soils were within the range reported for global mangrove forests. The relatively low C_org sink capacity of Red Sea mangroves could be due to the extreme environmental conditions such as low rainfall, nutrient limitation and high temperature, reducing the growth rates of the mangroves and increasing soil respiration rates.