Background: In the history of medicinal science of the medieval East, the merits of the great tabibs-physicians Ar-Razi, Avicenna (Ibn Sinо), the scientist-encyclopedist Beruni, Yusufi and others are enormous. When treating patients, they used medicinal plants, as well as fungi, animal (ornithological) and mineral products. Such use of plants for medicinal purposes goes back centuries. In this review, we present a compilation of the most important plant species and fungi used in the traditional medicine of the medieval East. Methods: We have obtained ethnomedicinal information by searching various resources, such as scientific and popular journal papers, monographs, books written in Uzbek, Russian and English, and our materials focused on the traditional use of medicinal plants and fungi. Scientific names, both of plants and fungi were checked for potential synonyms in the databases Index Fungorum and Plants of the World Online (POWO). Results: Based on literary data on taxonomy, resource science, as well as folk and scientific medicine, we compiled a list of plant families used by healers and medicines of the Middle East. According to our results, 173 species of medicinal plants were used and described by Ar-Razi, 515 by Avicenna, 901 in Beruni, and 110 as well as a few fungal species in Yusufi. Among the medicinal plants used by Ar-Razi, Avicenna and the Beruni listed in Saidana are more than 240 species currently found in the flora of Uzbekistan. Conclusion: On the face of the fact that the centuries-old experience of traditional medicine, generalized in the works of scientists from the Middle East, has found its confirmation at the present time. Most of the medicinal plants indicated by them are now included in the Pharmacopoeias of many countries, from which both independent medicinal products were obtained, and biologically active substances were isolated that serve in the improvement of the population. Given the growing interest in medicines of natural origin, work in this direction will continue. Key words: Ethnobiology, Plants, Fungi, Folk Medicine, Scientific Medicine

The current study focuses on the synthesis of Cerium oxide (CeO₂) nanocatalyst via Tragacanth Gum (TG) using the wet impregnation method and its application for sustainable biodiesel production from a novel, non-edible Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl seed oil. The D. sophia seed oil has higher oil content (36 wt%) and free fatty acid (FFA) value (0.6 mg KOH/g). Innovative analytical methods, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, were used to characterize the newly synthesized, environmentally friendly, and recyclable CeO₂-TG phytonanocatalyst (FT-IR). The results show that the CeO₂-TG phytonanocatalyst was 22 nm in diameter with a spherical shape outer morphology, while the inner structure was hexagonal. Due to low FFA content, the D. sophia seed oil was pretreated and transesterified via a single step. Using varying parameters, the optimized process variables were determined via Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The optimum process values were 8:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 0.3 wt% catalyst concentration, 90 °C temperature, and reaction time of 210 min with 98% biodiesel yield. The recently created phytonanocatalyst was reliable and effective, with three times reusability in the transesterification reaction. Thin layer chromatography (TLC), FT-IR, gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GCMS), and Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses were used to characterize the synthesized biodiesel. Physico-chemical properties of D. sophia biodiesel, i.e., Kinematic viscosity (4.23 mm²/s), density (0.800 kg/m³), pour point (−7 °C), cloud point (−12 °C), and flash point (73.5 °C) agree well with international biodiesel standards (ASTM-6751, 951), (EU-14214), and China (GB/T 20828) standards. The results show that the synthesized nanocatalyst demonstrated remarkable stability, indicating a bright future for industrial biodiesel production from low-cost feedstock.

Membrane technology has been embraced as a feasible and suitable substitute for conventional time- and energy-intensive biodiesel synthesis processes. It is ecofriendly, easier to run and regulate, and requires less energy than conventional approaches, with excellent stability. Therefore, the present study involved the synthesis and application of a highly reactive and recyclable Titania-based heterogeneous nanocatalyst (TiO₂) for biodiesel production from nonedible Azadhiracta indica seed oil via a membrane reactor, since Azadhiracta indica is easily and widely accessible and has a rich oil content (39% w/w). The high free fatty acids content (6.52 mg/g KOH) of the nonedible oil was decreased to less than 1% via two-step esterification. Following the esterification, transesterification was performed using a heterogeneous TiO₂ nanocatalyst under optimum conditions, such as a 9:1 methanol–oil molar ratio, 90 °C reaction temperature, 2 wt.% catalyst loading, and an agitation rate of 600 rpm, and the biodiesel yield was optimized through response surface methodology (RSM). Azadhiracta indica seed oil contains 68.98% unsaturated (61.01% oleic acid, 8.97% linoleic acid) and 31.02% saturated fatty acids (15.91% palmitic acid, 15.11% stearic acid). These fatty acids transformed into respective methyl esters, with a total yield up to 95% achieved. The biodiesel was analyzed via advanced characterization techniques like gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), whereas the catalyst was characterized via X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Due to its physicochemical properties, Azadirachta indica seed oil is a highly recommended feedstock for biodiesel production. Moreover, it is concluded that the Titania-based heterogeneous nanocatalyst (TiO₂) is effective for high-quality liquid fuel synthesis from nonedible Azadirachta indica seed oil in a membrane reactor, which could be an optional green route to cleaner production of bioenergy, eventually leading to sustenance, robustness, and resilience that will aid in developing a holistic framework for integrated waste management.

The green chemistry method for nanocatalyst synthesis along with environmentally feasible non-edible sources are promising alternatives to fossil fuels. The current study focuses on the synthesis of copper oxide phyto-nanocatalyst and the identification of a new renewable feedstock, Citrullus colocynthis, to reduce environmental pollution. The highest biodiesel yield (95%) was obtained under optimum conditions of a 1:8 oil-to-methanol ratio and reaction temperature of 85 °C for 120 min with a 0.365 wt% catalyst concentration. The phyto-nanocatalyst was synthesized using seed oil cake after extracting oil with the salt of copper (copper oxide). The catalyst was then subjected to various analyses, namely, EDX, FT-IR, SEM, and XRD. The catalyst was proved to be efficient and effective after being reused five times and still there was a very small difference in biodiesel yield. All the analyses also show sustainable and stable results. Thus, copper oxide phyto-nanocatalyst with non-edible Citrullus colocynthis proved to be highly effective, sustainable, and a better alternative source to the future biodiesel industry.

Micromorphological and ultrastructural data have been helpful in determining the evolution, classification, ecology, and phylogeny of seed plants. Taxonomic utility of seed characters has been explored, although the value of micro-structure in selected dicot angiosperms from desert areas has not been adequately addressed. We conducted a comparative morphometric analysis of internal and external seed features in the 16 dicot species representing 10 families from the Thal desert (Pakistan) using scanning electron microscopy. Seeds were mostly minute and small and slightly larger than 1 mm in length except for Acacia nilotica, Astragalus hamosus and Prosopis juliflora. Seeds varied in shape from elliptical to obovate, D-shaped, reniform, rhomboid, and ellipsoidal. The cell outline, periclinal boundaries, and sculpture pattern of the anticlinal wall were generally rugulate, reticulate and striate, papillate and rugose, or rarely undulating granulate. The seed coat also comprises diverse forms of epicuticular projections and texture. The phenetics of 84 character-states using principal component and dendrogram statistics supported the affinities among desert species. Here, we identified micromorphological similarities and differences among dicot angiosperms to determine their systematic relationships. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT