Capsicum products are widely commercialised and consumed worldwide. These substrates present unusual nutritional characteristics for microbial growth. Despite this, the presence of spoilage fungi and the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the pepper production chain have been commonly detected. The main aim of this work was to review the critical control points, with a focus on mycotoxin contamination, during the production, storage and distribution of Capsicum products from a safety perspective; outlining the important role of ecophysiological factors in stimulating or inhibiting mycotoxin biosynthesis in these food commodities. Moreover, the human health risks caused by the ingestion of peppers contaminated with mycotoxins were also reviewed. Overall, Capsicum and its derivative-products are highly susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins. Pepper crop production and further transportation, processing and storage are crucial for production of safe food.

The human microbiome plays a central role in modulating the immune system and maintaining immunophysiological homeostasis, contributing to the prevention of immune-mediated diseases. In particular, the gut microbiota is a key ecosystem for immune system maturation, especially in early life. This review aimed to analyze the molecular and cellular mechanisms linking the microbiome to immune and neuronal functions, as well as the impact of dysbiosis and emerging therapeutic strategies targeting the microbiome. The analysis was based on scientific databases, prioritizing studies published since 2000, with special emphasis on the past decade. The microbiome influences immune signaling through microorganism-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) and pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Additionally, microbial metabolites—such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), tryptophan derivatives, and secondary bile acids—exert significant immunomodulatory effects. The intestinal epithelial barrier is also described as an active immunological interface contributing to systemic regulation. The literature highlights innovative therapies, including fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), probiotics, and microbiome editing with CRISPR-Cas technologies. These strategies aim to restore microbial balance and improve immune outcomes. The growing body of evidence positions the microbiome as a valuable clinical and diagnostic target, with significant potential for application in personalized medicine.

According to the scientific information reviewed, cheese is highly susceptible to contamination by mycotoxin-producing fungi, primarily species from the genera Aspergillus (A. niger, A. flavus) and Penicillium (P. commune, P. solitum, P. palitans, and P. crustosum). Studies on various types of cheese made from cow’s milk report an average concentration of Aflatoxin M1 (AFM₁) at 13,000 ng kg⁻¹, which is alarming since the regulatory limits for AFM₁ in cheese range from 250 to 500 ng kg⁻¹. For instance, limits set by Codex Alimentarius, the European Commission (EC), Turkey, and Iran are 250 ng kg⁻¹. In the Netherlands, the limit is 200 ng kg⁻¹, and in Italy, it is 450 ng kg⁻¹. However, the concentration of mycotoxins frequently exceeds these regulatory limits, including critical mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, citrinin, and cyclopiazonic acid, which pose significant global health concerns. Therefore, this study aims to review the mycobiota responsible for producing key mycotoxins in cheese and to assess the influence of physicochemical factors on fungal growth and mycotoxin production. By incorporating control strategies such as hygiene practices, pasteurization, and the use of preservatives, this study seeks to improve methodologies in the cheese production chain and mitigate contamination by fungi and mycotoxins.

Berry fruits of Capsicum annuum L. cv. “Cacho de Cabra” are used for the manufacture of a traditional pepper powder known as Merkén. In the present study, aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination in berry fruits of C. annuum was determined at harvest, drying, and smoking stages of Merkén production, in cumin and coriander seeds used as Merkén ingredients, and in the final packaged Merkén produced by local farmers. Additionally, Merkén samples from local markets in the region of La Araucanía (Chile) were also evaluated. Chromatographic analysis was based on a qualitative method. AFs and OTA were not detected on pepper pods and seeds. There was no detection of AFs and OTA on cultured Aspergillus and Penicillium strains isolated from pepper pods, cumin and coriander seeds and Merkén. The lack of AFs/OTA-producers among the isolated fungal species can explain and support the absence of contamination in pepper pods. In contrast, the AFB₁ was detected in 75% of Merkén obtained from farmers and 46% of Merkén samples purchased from local markets; while OTA was detected in 100% of Merkén samples obtained from farmers and local markets. In the Merkén production chain, the harvest and post-harvest are key stages for fungal growth while the commercialization stage is highly susceptible to AFs and OTA contamination.

This study aims to evaluate the effect of freeze-drying and long-term storage on the biotechnological potential of Aspergillus section Nigri strains. Twelve selected strains were freeze-dried and aged by accelerated storage, at 37 °C in the dark, for 2 and 4 weeks. To assess possible changes as a consequence of the ageing in the freeze-drying ampoules, morphological characteristics, mycotoxins and enzymes production, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALTI-TOF MS) spectra, and M13 phage probe fingerprinting were used as part of a polyphasic approach. Phenotypical changes were observed; nevertheless, they did not substantially affect the potential biotechnological use of these strains. The activity of hydrolytic enzymes (protease, carboxymethylcellulase, xylanase, pectinase and mannanase) was maintained or increased after freeze-drying. MALDI-TOF MS data originated spectra that grouped, for the majority of samples, according to strain independently of preservation time point. M13 profiles revealed the presence of some genetic polymorphisms after preservation. However, the three studied times still clustered for more than 50% of strains. Our results show that the studied strains maintain their biotechnological potential after preservation, with minimal phenotypic alterations. These findings provide evidence that freeze-drying preservation is a suitable option to preserve biotechnologically relevant aspergilli strains from section Nigri, and one should consider that the observed effects might be species/strain-dependent.