Ambient air pollution remains one of the most important risk factors for health outcomes. In recent years, there has been a growing number of research linking particulate matter (PM) exposure with adverse health effects, especially on cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The objective of this review is to examine the range and nature of studies on time series analysis of health outcomes affected by PM_2.5 across a broad research area. A literature search was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) extension for scoping review framework through a strategic search of PubMed and ScienceDirect online databases for articles from January 2016 to January 2021. Articles were first screened by their titles and abstracts. Then two reviewers independently reviewed and evaluated the full text of the remaining articles for eligibility. Of the 407 potentially relevant studies, 138 articles were included for final analysis. There was an increasing trend in publications from 2016 to 2019 but a decreasing trend in the year 2020. Most studies were conducted in Eastern and South-Eastern Asia (69.6%), Europe and Northern America (14.5%) and Latin America and the Caribbean (8.7%), with the majority coming from high- and upper-middle-income countries (95.6%). The main methodology used was Generalized Additive Model (GAM) with Poisson distribution (74.6%). Morbidity was the most common health outcome studied (60.1%), with vulnerable groups (64.5%) often included. The association between PM_2.5 and health effects was stronger for respiratory diseases compared to cardiovascular diseases. In short-term studies (less than 7 years), respiratory diseases showed higher risks compared to cardiovascular. However, in long-term studies (7 years and more), cardiovascular showed higher risks.

The concentration of meHg in freshwater fish and seafood was investigated, as well as the consumption patterns of fish and seafood by different demographic groups (age, ethnicity, gender). A potential alarm for human health hazards was also assessed, and the results were compared to the provisional tolerable weekly intakes (PTWIs) and the hazard quotient parameter (HQ). The results showed that meHg levels of 67 species ranged from 0.013 to 0.252 mg/kg of wet weight (WW) with significant differences between different fish and seafood groups (χ²_KW = 49.09; p < 0.001). Median concentrations of meHg in fish and seafood groups in descending orders are as follows: demersal fish (0.1006 mg/kg WW) > pelagic fish (0.0686 mg/kg WW) > freshwater fish 0.045 mg/kg WW) > cephalopods (0.0405 mg/kg WW) crustaceans (0.0356 mg/kg WW). The results revealed that older population (> 40 years old) consumed significantly (p = 0.000) more fish compared to younger generations and the elderly consumed the highest amounts of fish (104.0 ± 113.0 g/day). The adolescents (10–17 years old) consumed more than double of amount for both cephalopod and crustacean compared to the older populations (p < 0.05). Malay ethnic (96.1 ± 99.6 g/day) consumed significantly (p = 0.000) higher amounts of fish and seafood compared to other ethnicities, similar to male subjects (95.2 ± 102 g/day; p = 0.026) when compared to the female (86 ± 96.3 g/day). The estimated weekly intake (EWI) values showed results below 1.6 µg/kg BW/week, the tolerable levels recommended by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) for all different demographic factors except for higher consumers at 75th percentile and above. Consumption of marine fish contributed to a higher value of PTWI to all different demographic groups (the estimated weekly intake (EWI) range: 0.2988–0.6893 µg/kg BW/week) but for the adolescents, where from the consumption of crustaceans (0.3488 µg/kg BW/week or 21.8% of PTWI) and cephalopods (0.504 µg/kg BW/week or 31.5% of PTWI). The results from this study also revealed the HQ value for overall consumption of fish and seafood by the adolescents and elderly exceeded one. This was contributed from the consumption of demersal fish and cephalopods, thus indicating the nonacceptable level of noncarcinogenic adverse health effects.

Hospital buildings require special attention to protect patients and healthcare workers from hospital-acquired infections and sick building illnesses. This is the first study to assess the prevalence of fungus in indoor air, outdoor air, and their contamination on surfaces at selected locations in four highly contaminated hospitals (A, B, C, and D) in Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 294 indoor air samples, 106 scrapped and 169 swabbed, were collected from July 2019 to August 2020. Bioaerosol concentrations were calculated using the colony-forming unit (CFU)/m³. Molecular identification was performed on the cultures. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region in the rRNA gene of the isolates was amplified by PCR. Results showed that fungal burden was in the range between 18 and 2597 CFU/m³. Fungal load in selected locations at Hospital D were in the higher range between 106 and 2597 CFU/m³, with two locations exceeding the national guidelines. Fungal genera were highly identified in air samples (47) compared to swabbed (29) and scrapped (18) samples. The dominant species were C. halotolerans, C. tenuissimum, P. alfredii, P. brevicompactum, P. brocae, P. cataractarum, and A. aculeatus. Fungal loads were higher in the Orthopedic and Oral Surgeon Clinic, the On Call Emergency Room, wards, and pathways.

The risks and benefits associated with methyl mercury (meHg) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) from seafood consumption were assessed in adults and adolescents from Peninsular Malaysia. Seafood samples were collected for meHg analysis while the consumption survey was conducted among adults and pupils 10years old. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (LC ω-3 PUFA; DHA and EPA) data were obtained from locally published articles. The estimated weekly intake (EWI), provisional tolerable weekly intakes (PTWIs), hazard quotient (HQ), and maximum safe weekly consumption (MSWC) were calculated for each seafood studied. The average range of LC ω-3 PUFA concentration was between 11.7 and 2,210.5mg/100g, where 27 of samples contained >500mg/100g and were predominant in pelagic fish and mollusks. MeHg concentrations in seafood samples ranged from 0.0426 to 0.4576mg/kg of wet weight (WW) and showed significant variations between all species at a median concentration of 0.06210.0573mg/kg WW. Total seafood consumed by the adolescents was 84.7103.7g/day, with significant marginal differences compared to the adult population at 90.5 100 g/day. Long-tail tuna, yellow-stripe shad, slender shad, and long-tail shad contributed to a higher LC ω-3 PUFA intake than other species. These fish also contributed to a low HQ value level, lowering the risk of health effects. Mangrove red snapper has a low LC ω-3 PUFA content, but the HQ value was the highest of all, and it is advised to consume less frequently. Double the intake of cephalopod and a threefold increase in crustacean consumption would still minimize the meHg risk and may increase the intake of LC ω-3 PUFA.

The concentration of meHg in freshwater fish and seafood was investigated, as well as the consumption patterns of fish and seafood by different demographic groups (age, ethnicity, gender). A potential alarm for human-health hazards was also assessed, and the results were compared to the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intakes (PTWIs) and the Hazard Quotient parameter (HQ). Results showed that meHg levels of 67 species ranged from 0.013 to 0.252 mg/kg of wet weight (WW) with significant differences between different fish and seafood groups (χ²_KW = 49.09; p < 0.001). Median concentrations of meHg in fish and seafood groups in descending orders: demersal fish (0.1006 mg/kg WW) > pelagic fish (0.0686 mg/kg WW) > freshwater fish 0.045 mg/kg WW) > cephalopods (0.0405 mg/kg WW) crustaceans (0.0356 mg/kg WW). Results revealed that older population (> 40 years old) consumed significantly (p = 0.000) more fish compared to younger generations and the elderly consumed the highest amounts of fish (104.0 ± 113.0 g/day). The adolescents (10–17 years old) consumed more than double of amount for both cephalopod and crustacean compared to the older populations (p < 0.05). Malay ethnic (96.1 ± 99.6 g/day) consumed significantly (p = 0.000) higher amounts of fish and seafood compared to other ethnicity, similarly to male subjects (95.2 ± 102 g/day; p = 0.026) when compared to the female (86 ± 96.3 g/day). The estimated weekly intake (EWI) values showed results of below 1.6 µg/kg BW/week, the tolerable levels recommended by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) for all different demographic factors except for higher consumers at 75th percentile and above. Consumption of marine fish contributed to higher value of PTWI to all different demographic groups (the estimated weekly intake (EWI) range: 0.2988–0.6893 µg/kg BW/week) but for the adolescents, where from the consumption of crustaceans (0.3488 µg/kg BW/week or 21.8% of PTWI) and cephalopods (0.504 µg/kg BW/week or 31.5% of PTWI). Results from this study also revealed the HQ value for overall consumption of fish and seafood by the adolescents and elderly exceeded one. This was contributed from the consumption of demersal fish and cephalopods, thus indicating the non-acceptable level of non-carcinogenic adverse health effects.

Cephalopods and crustaceans are known to bioaccumulate heavy metals, potentially posing both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks to consumers. This study was conducted to determine heavy metal concentrations and assess associated health risks in the edible tissues of 84 cephalopod and crustacean samples. Heavy metal concentrations and assess associated health risks in the edible tissues of 84 cephalopod and crustacean samples collected from selected wholesale markets and major fish landing ports throughout Peninsular Malaysia. The analysis focused on nine heavy metals: selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), tin (Sn), chromium (Cr), and manganese (Mn). The samples were digested using a microwave digestion system, and heavy metal concentrations were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results showed that Mn was the most abundant metal, followed by Cr and Zn. Octopus (C. indicus) had the highest Mn concentration (5.01 mg/kg WW), while Rainbow shrimp (P. sculptilis) had the highest overall metal concentration (91.02 mg/kg WW). Significant differences were observed between cephalopods and crustaceans, with Cd and Sn concentrations being notably higher in cephalopods (p < 0.001). However, no significant associations were observed between heavy metal concentrations and sample weight or length, indicating a greater influence of environmental factors. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) explained 80.4% of the variance, with Cd, Sn, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, and Mn accounting for the majority of the variance. Estimated weekly intake (EWI) values ranged from 0.002 to 26.30 µg/kg bw/week for cephalopods and 8.02 × 10⁻⁶ to 243.175 µg/kg bw/week for crustaceans. All metal levels were below the permissible limits set by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations/World Health Organisation (FAO/WHO). Hazard Index values were <1, indicating low non-carcinogenic risk, and Total Carcinogenic Risk values for Pb and Cr were below 1 × 10⁻⁴, suggesting negligible carcinogenic risk.