Fungi and their natural products, like secondary metabolites, have gained a huge demand in the last decade due to their increasing applications in healthcare, environmental cleanup, and biotechnology-based industries. The fungi produce these secondary metabolites (SMs) during the different phases of their growth, which are categorized into terpenoids, alkaloids, polyketides, and non-ribosomal peptides. These SMs exhibit significant biological activity, which contributes to the formulation of novel pharmaceuticals, biopesticides, and environmental bioremediation agents. Nowadays, these fungal-derived SMs are widely used in food and beverages, for fermentation, preservatives, protein sources, and in dairy industries. In healthcare, it is being used as an antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive drug. The usage of modern tools of biotechnology can achieve an increase in demand for these SMs and large-scale production. The present review comprehensively analyses the diversity of fungal SMs along with their emerging applications in healthcare, agriculture, environmental sustainability, and nutraceuticals. Here, the authors have reviewed the recent advancements in genetic engineering, metabolic pathway manipulation, and synthetic biology to improve the production and yield of these SMs. Advancement in fermentation techniques, bioprocessing, and co-cultivation approaches for large-scale production of SMs. Investigators further highlighted the importance of omics technologies in understanding the regulation and biosynthesis of SMs, which offers an understanding of novel applications in drug discovery and sustainable agriculture. Finally, the authors have addressed the potential for genetic manipulation and biotechnological innovations for further exploitation of fungal SMs for commercial and environmental benefits.

Candida krusei is diploid, dimorphic, opportunistic yeast belonging to the methylotrophic clade, known for causing infections primarily in immunocompromised individuals. It is globally distributed with variable prevalence across regions and patient populations. C krusei has been associated with several nosocomial outbreaks, particularly in neonatal intensive care units. A key concern is its intrinsic resistance to fluconazole, often resulting in high mortality. The mechanisms of azole resistance are complex and include low affinity of the Erg11p enzyme, overexpression of efflux pumps, and mutations in the ABC11 gene. Additionally, echinocandin resistance has emerged due to mutations in the hotspot regions of the FKS1 gene. Its biofilm-forming ability further enhances its survival against antifungal agents and immune responses. This study highlights C krusei as a clinically significant and emerging fungal pathogen, emphasizing the need for enhanced surveillance, molecular monitoring, and continued research to mitigate its growing threat in healthcare settings.

The emergence of highly drug-resistant fungal strains is the major concern in health care sector. There is an urgent need to develop novel and potent antifungal drugs with minimal side effects to encounter invasive fungal infections. In this study, we have green-synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by using leaf extract of Selaginella bryopteris and checked their antifungal activity against different Candida spp. The optimization of parameters involved in the synthesis of AgNPs includes pH, temperature, concentration of silver nitrate, reaction time. The synthesis of NPs was investigated by the UV–Vis spectrophotometric analysis. The physicochemical properties of AgNPs were further analysed by FESEM, TEM, DLS, zeta potential, FTIR and XRD studies. AgNPs were found to be spherical in shape with an average size of 35 nm and were monodispersed in nature without any agglomeration. The results of antifungal susceptibility testing (AFST) and growth curve kinetics revealed that AgNPs displayed significant anticandidal activity with MIC and MFC values of 0.003 and 0.006 ng/mL respectively. Treatment of Candida spp. with AgNPs leads to damage in fungal cell wall, cell membrane along with disruption of mitochondrial enzyme activity and release of nuclear content. The green-synthesized AgNPs not only caused damage and destruction to the morphology of Candida but also affected the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway. The green-synthesized AgNPs were also found to exhibit antibiofilm activity against Candida spp. which was assessed by crystal violet assay and SEM analysis confirming biofilm reduction by 80–82% as compared to control.

Background: Metallic nanoparticles from different natural sources exhibit superior therapeutic options as compared to the conventional methods. Selaginella species have attracted special attention of researchers worldwide due to the presence of bioactive molecules such as flavonoids, biflavonoids, triterpenes, steroids, saponins, tannins and other secondary metabolites that exhibit antimicrobial, antiplasmodial, anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities. Environment friendly green synthesised silver nanoparticles from Selaginella species provide viable, safe and efficient treatment against different fungal pathogens. Objective: This systematic review aims to summarise the literature pertaining to superior antifungal ability of green synthesised silver nanoparticles using plant extracts of Selaginella spp. in comparison to both aqueous and ethanolic raw plant extracts by electronically collecting articles from databases. Methods: The recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis were taken into consideration while preparing this review. The titles and abstracts of the collected data were stored in Endnote20 based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The search strategy included literature from established sources like PubMed, Google Scholar and Retrieval System Online using subject descriptors. Results: The search yielded 60 articles with unique hits. After removal of duplications, 46 articles were identified, 40 were assessed and only seven articles were chosen and included in this review based on our eligibility criteria. Conclusion: The physicochemical and preliminary phytochemical investigations of Selaginella suggest higher drug potency of nanoparticles synthesised from plant extract against different diseases as compared to aqueous and ethanolic plant extracts. The study holds great promise as the synthesis of nanoparticles involves low energy consumption, minimal technology and least toxic effects.