This paper assesses how efficiently Common Agricultural Policy direct payments enhance farm incomes by applying a quantile continuous treatment effect model on the Italian Farm Accountancy Data Network sample. Adding to previous analyses, we show that income responses to direct payments are higher in large farms rather than in small farms and lower in farms benefiting from larger levels of support. This suggests that direct payments are not very efficient in supporting incomes of small farms and reducing the disparity existing within the farm population. Furthermore, results suggest that there is scope to reduce the amount of payments provided to highly supported farms.

The European Union’s Farm-to-Fork strategy, aiming at increasing the environmental sustainability of farming, is oriented to limit farm inputs that could harm the environment. This restrictive policy affects farmers’ productive choices and economic well-being. However, limited attention has been paid to how this could affect the economic risk farmers face. To do so, we examine how risk is affected by fertilisers, crop protection, irrigation water, and labour choices. This study relied on Antle’s method of moments applied to the irrigated field crop farms of the Italian Farm Accountancy Data Network from 2008 to 2019. This paper fills the literature gap jointly using three aspects usually adopted separately. First, consider the three moments and the semi-variance to investigate the risks of farmers’ strategies. Second, it accounts also for government payments to consider the relationship between these and risk. Finally, it adopts an estimation strategy that relies on the Generalised Method of Moments (GMM) for the first step and the Fixed Effects-Generalized Least Squared (FE-GLS) estimator for the second, considering time and individual fixed effects and considering interaction terms effects. According to our research, constraining fertilisers, crop protection, and irrigation water increases income variability, causing farming to be potentially riskier. However, restricting fertilisers and crop protection use decreases the downside risk. These results indicate that policy measures constraining input use, such as those foreseen in the EU, strongly influence the extent and type of risks farmers face. Therefore, policymakers should consider this evidence when designing environmental policies.

Durum wheat is essential for global food security. Nevertheless, its cultivation is susceptible to hazards, including unpredictability in yield and grain quality. This systematic review and bibliometric analysis identify factors influencing durum wheat yield and quality, assessing the degree of control farmers have over these factors. The goal is to understand their impact on production risks. Peer-reviewed studies in English from 1990 to April 2024 that focused on the yield or quality of durum wheat were included, while those lacking specific data or not peer-reviewed were excluded. Data were acquired via the Web of Science (WoS), with the concluding search conducted in April 2024. Results were synthesized from 2131 studies selected from an initial pool of 5159, using a bibliometric approach to categorize findings into standard, biotic, abiotic, and other factors. Analysis revealed that practices like irrigation and nitrogen fertilization improve yields, while genetic advancements boost stress resilience. These insights support targeted agronomic strategies. Despite potential biases and inconsistencies, the review underscores key strategies to enhance durum wheat risk management and bolster food security. This study was funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (CURSA, D.I.Ver.So.) and PRIN—2020 Call.