Background: This study aimed to compare the immediate effects of small-sided games (SSGs) and running-based high-intensity interval training (HIITrb) on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, cognitive performance, and enjoyment in young, male soccer players. Methods: Twenty-four soccer players [age: 19.2 ± 0.8 years] completed one session each of four-a-side SSG or HIITrb in a randomized, counterbalanced, and crossover design, with a one-week washout period. Blood samples and Trail Making Tests (TMTs) A and B were measured before and after exercise. Heart rate (HR) was monitored throughout the games, and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and enjoyment were collected at the end of the measurements. Results: The results show no significant effects of time (p > 0.775), group (p > 0.276) or time × group interaction (p > 0.199) on BDNF levels. For TMT-A, the time effect (p = 0.866) and group effect (p = 0.057) were not significant; however, the time × group interaction was significant (p < 0.019), indicating a superior performance in the SSG compared to HIITrb. In the TMT-B, significant effects were observed for both time (p < 0.001) and group (p < 0.001), while the time × group interaction effect was not statistically significant (p > 0.061). Furthermore, enjoyment levels did not differ significantly between conditions (p = 0.976). Conclusions: These findings suggest that four-a-side SSG may enhance processing speed compared to HIITrb without changes in serum BDNF levels. Coaches may consider using 4v4 SSG formats in early training sessions or warm-ups to stimulate processing speed and mental readiness in young soccer players.

Yaşam süresi uzadıkça mental hastalıklar daha yaygın sağlık sorunları haline gelerek hastaların ve ailelerinin refahını ve yaşam kalitesini oldukça azaltmaktadır. Bu patolojilerin başlamasını önlemek veya geciktirmek için etkili bir strateji olan düzenli egzersizin beyin-kaynaklı nörotrofik faktör (BDNF) gibi nöroprotektif nitelikli hücresel ve moleküler dolaşım faktörleri yoluyla beyin sağlığı üzerindeki faydaları tetiklediği düşünülmektedir. Bu nedenle, bu sistematik derleme, egzersiz kaynaklı BDNF’nin mental hastalıklar üzerindeki etkisine ilişkin güncel bilgileri özetlemeyi ve bu hastalıklara optimum fayda sağlayacak egzersiz programları oluşturmak için öneriler sunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Sistematik inceleme stratejisi, elektronik veri tabanı sistematik araştırmalarında bir metodoloji olarak spor bilimine uyarlanan raporlama maddeler bildirisi PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) yönergelerine uygun şekilde yürütülmüştür. Bu kapsamda oluşturulan dışlama ve dahil edilme kriterleri göz önünde bulundurularak sekiz tam metin çalışma değerlendirilmiştir. Bu çalışmadan elde edilen bulgular, en az dört hafta boyunca ve haftada 150 dakika orta şiddetli aerobik ve direnç egzersizlerinin ya da bu egzersizlerin halihazırda devam eden tedavilerle veya bilişsel egzersizlerle birlikte kullanılmasının mental sağlık üzerindeki olumlu etkilerine BDNF'deki artışların aracılık edebileceğini göstermektedir. Bu durum egzersizin, düşük BDNF seviyelerine sahip mental hastalığı olan bireyleri hedefleyebileceği hipotezlerini desteklemektedir. Sonuç olarak egzersiz kaynaklı BDNF düzeylerinin mental sağlıkla ilişkili standart tedavi müdahalelerinin etkinliğini geliştirebileceği ve klinik iyileşmeyle ilişkili potansiyel bir biyobelirteç olabileceği düşünülmektedir. Buna rağmen özellikle farklı şiddet ve sıklıklarda planlanan egzersiz türlerinin ya da kombinasyonlarının BDNF salınımını farklı şekilde etkiliyor oluşu bu çalışma sonuçlarına dayanarak mental sağlığı BDNF kaynaklı geliştirebilecek standart bir egzersiz programı oluşturmayı oldukça zorlaştırmaktadır.

Background: Carbohydrate mouth rinsing (CHOmr), a nutritional intervention for delaying fatigue and meeting the energy demands of soccer, and the motivational strategy of coach encouragement (CE) are widely recognized as effective approaches for enhancing athletic performance in soccer. Objectives: This study aimed to compare the effects of CHOmr + CE, CHOmr, and CE on heart rate (HR) and kinematic profiles during four-a-side small-sided soccer games (SSGs). Methods: Twenty-four young soccer players (age: 17.2 ± 0.8 years) played six bouts of four-a-side SSGs with CHOmr + CE, CHOmr, or CE at 3-day intervals in a randomized, single-blinded, placebo-controlled, or crossover study design. The HR and kinematic responses were continuously recorded during all games. Results: There were no statistically significant differences between the groups in peak heart rate (HR_peak) (p ≥ 0.05, F = 0.326, p = 0.723, η² = 0.014) and mean heart rate (HR_mean) (p ≥ 0.05, F = 0.845, p = 0.436, η² = 0.035). No significant differences were found for distances in Zone 1 (p ≥ 0.05, F = 1.21, p = 0.306, η² = 0.050), Zone 4 (p ≥ 0.05, F = 0.310, p = 0.735, η² = 0.013), Zone 5 (p ≥ 0.05, F = 1.02, p = 0.368, η² = 0.042), or Zone 6 (p ≥ 0.05, F = 0.161, p = 0.211, η² = 0.055), nor acceleration (p ≥ 0.05, F = 0.208, p = 0.137, η² = 0.083) and deceleration (p ≥ 0.05, F = 0.790, p = 0.460, η² = 0.033). Similarly, although no significant differences were observed in the distance in Zone 3 (p ≥ 0.05, F = 3.12, p = 0.054, η² = 0.119) or repeated sprint distance (p ≥ 0.05, F = 2.96, p = 0.062, η² = 0.114), the CHOmr +CE group exhibited higher average values for these variables. However, a statistically significant difference was observed in the distance covered in Zone 2 (p ≤ 0.05, F = 3.89, p = 0.028, η² = 0.145), with the CHOmr +CE group performing better, as confirmed by the post-hoc analyses. Conclusions: Although our findings indicate that CE alone may influence kinematic profiles during SSGs, similar to CHOmr or its combination with CE, further research should explore the underlying mechanisms and potential contextual factors influencing these outcomes. Therefore, we suggest that coaches prefer CE because it is easy to implement.

Can Exergames Use As an Educational Tool in Physical Education for Cognitive, Social, and Affective Domains?

The increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) along with physical exercise is thought to be one of the main reasons of the positive effect on the cognitive characteristics of elderly persons. The aim of this study is to systematically review the effects of physical exercise on BDNF in elderly people. The methodology of the electronic database survey was based on the preferred reporting clauses for systematic reviews. In this review, 21 full-text studies which have been evaluated in terms of the effects of physical exercise on BDNF in elderly people were reviewed. In most of the studies, there is serious evidence that physical exercise regulates BDNF levels in the elderly. Exercise can become a powerful prescription in combating cognitive diseases associated with neuromuscular disorders, and a sedentary lifestyle, if it can lead to the healing and regeneration of neural tissue through its effect on BDNF.

Exercise serves as a potent physiological stimulus influencing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a key molecule involved in neuronal maintenance, synaptic plasticity, and cognitive regulation. However, the temporal dynamics of circulating BDNF in response to varying exercise intensities remain poorly understood. This study investigated serum BDNF kinetics following low- and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (LICE, MICE) and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) in young healthy men. Twelve participants completed all three exercise sessions in a randomized crossover design with seven-day washouts. Venous blood samples were collected at baseline, immediately post-exercise, and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min of recovery. Serum BDNF and blood lactate concentrations were measured, and heart rate was monitored continuously during each exercise session. BDNF levels were significantly higher in HIIE than in both LICE and MICE across all time points (p < 0.001), with no differences between LICE and MICE (p > 0.05). Within-group analysis revealed that HIIE induced a pronounced but transient rise in BDNF, peaking at 15 min post-exercise and returning to baseline by 60 min. These results suggest that HIIE elicits a distinct neurotrophic response pattern shaped by exercise intensity and interval structure. Our findings provide descriptive data on serum BDNF kinetics that may inform future mechanistic research. Trial registration: The study was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (identifier: NCT07175831 https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07175831) on 15th of September 2025.