Morphometric measurements in wildlife are essential data needed to link behaviour and ecology to life‐history traits. However, acquisition of such data, especially in large vertebrates, is a challenging and limiting aspect in many studies due to associated capture and handling. Ultimately, this prevents testing important hypotheses in wildlife ecology. We demonstrate how to overcome some of these challenges by improving the far‐reaching potential of photogrammetry for wildlife. We validate a methodology using photogrammetry to acquire measurements of complex, curvilinear, morphometric traits (deer antlers) at long range (up to 200 m), providing a methodological foundation for further application to numerous physical attributes and species. We calibrated and validated two different photogrammetric camera systems and applied long‐range photogrammetry to measure a suite of antler features from deer trophies positioned analogous to free‐living, wild deer. We also developed, validated and described an efficient correction protocol to overcome the complexity of three‐dimensional antler features. This complexity previously biased the acquisition of absolute measurements. Our measurement estimates were characterized by mean errors lower than 5% when compared to true sizes, with our correction protocol for antlers particularly effective and validated with independent antler sizes. Importantly, the estimated size rankings based on the true sizes were identical to the rankings estimated by photogrammetry in all cases. We measured antlers in free‐living, wild fallow deer as a field validation and demonstration, showing how we were able to collect physical trait measurements of 230 antlers without capture. This non‐invasive, remote and fast technique can provide valuable and accurate data allowing researchers to address new hypotheses by linking life‐history traits to wildlife ecology, behaviour and management.

We estimated the current size and dynamics of the wolf population in Tuscany and investigated the trends and demographic drivers of population changes. Estimates were obtained by two different approaches: (i) mixed-technique field monitoring (from 2014 to 2016) that found the minimum observed pack number and estimated population size, and (ii) an individual-based model (run by Vortex software v. 10.3.8.0) with demographic inputs derived from a local intensive study area and historic data on population size. Field monitoring showed a minimum population size of 558 wolves (SE = 12.005) in 2016, with a density of 2.74 individuals/100 km². The population model described an increasing trend with an average annual rate of increase λ = 1.075 (SE = 0.014), an estimated population size of about 882 individuals (SE = 9.397) in 2016, and a density of 4.29 wolves/100 km². Previously published estimates of wolf population were as low as 56.2% compared to our field monitoring estimation and 34.6% in comparison to our model estimation. We conducted sensitivity tests to analyze the key parameters driving population changes based on juvenile and adult mortality rates, female breeding success, and litter size. Mortality rates played a major role in determining intrinsic growth rate changes, with adult mortality accounting for 62.5% of the total variance explained by the four parameters. Juvenile mortality was responsible for 35.8% of the variance, while female breeding success and litter size had weak or negligible effects. We concluded that reliable estimates of population abundance and a deeper understanding of the role of different demographic parameters in determining population dynamics are crucial to define and carry out appropriate conservation and management strategies to address human–wildlife conflicts.

Carcass utilization by scavengers is crucial for ecosystem dynamics, influencing energy transfer and nutrient cycling. Through the provision of unconsumed carcasses, the return of wolves (Canis lupus) to European ecosystems can trigger complex cascading effects on scavenger communities. Here, we investigate the scavenging dynamics of mammalian species in a prey-rich Mediterranean coastal area close to a large city where wolves have recently returned. Using camera traps, we monitored the scavenging activity on fallow deer (Dama dama) carcasses preyed upon by wolves over a five-year period following the predator’s return. We developed models to assess how competition between red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), wild boars (Sus scrofa), and wolves evolved over time, focusing on their carcass use, direct interactions, and spatiotemporal associations. Wolves exhibited consumption of only minor portions of prey and a negligible reuse of carcasses, while foxes and wild boars engaged in indirect competition for access to this emerging trophic niche. We found a notable temporal change in scavenging activity over the monitoring period, with wild boars progressively emerging as the primary scavenger and providing a substantial removal of carcass biomass. Our findings suggest that wild boars can assume a prominent scavenging role in environments where carcass availability is both abundant and predictable. This study underscores the importance of understanding scavenger temporal dynamics in the context of apex predator recolonization and highlights the need for further research to explore the long-term impacts of these interactions on community structure and ecosystem services as wolf populations continue to expand across Europe.

The aim of the study was to assess which kill site characteristics were selected by a lone wolf living in a protected Mediterranean coastal area near the city of Pisa, Italy, where both wild and domestic ungulates were available as potential prey. Between 2017 and 2019, we monitored the wolf’s predatory behaviour through a combination of camera trapping and active search for kill sites and prey carcasses. The main prey found was the fallow deer (n = 82); only two wild boars and no domestic ungulates were found preyed upon. The features and habitat of kill sites were modelled to test for selection by the wolf. The habitat type of kill site was composed of meadows and pastures (89.3%), woods (7.3%), degraded coastal areas (1.9%), roads and rivers (1.1%), and marshes (0.5%). We calculated their distance from landscape features and ran a binomial generalised linear model to test the influence of such landscape variables. The distance of kill sites from landscape elements was significantly different from random control sites, and a positive selection for fences was found. In fact, the wolf pushed fallow deer towards a fence to constrain them and prevent them from escaping. We also analysed the body condition of predated fallow deer as a percentage of fat content in the bone marrow of the hind legs. Our results revealed the selection of the lone wolf for deer in good body condition. This is a possible outcome of the habitat selection shown by fallow deer in the study area, where fenced open pastures are the richest in trophic resources; therefore, our findings suggest a high efficacy for the lone wolf hunting strategy, but also the adoption of a high risk feeding strategy by deer. This study suggests that a lone predator can take advantage of human infrastructures to maximise its predatory effectiveness.

Human-wolf (Canis lupus) conservation conflicts in Europe have increased as wolf presence has expanded. Understanding how different stakeholders perceive coexistence, especially in locations identified as ecologically important for wolves is necessary to minimize conflict. We conducted a survey in an area of northwest Italy identified as a critical corridor linking separate, cross-boundary populations. The objective was to understand how stakeholder identities, social demographics, communication, and exposure influence the success of coexistence strategies. The study found conservationists and, significantly, hunters were most positive about wolves, while farmers were least tolerant, irrespective of exposure. Tolerance also correlated positively with higher levels of formal education and engagement with science-based knowledge. In contrast, less tolerant attitudes were influenced more by informal knowledge discourses and age. The article concludes that coexistence strategies need to be inclusive, reflexive and adapted to the specific circumstances of different stakeholder types.

Wild ruminants often harbor pathogens transmissible to other animals and humans, but their epidemiological role is not always defined for all microorganisms. In this survey, spleens, kidneys, and hearts sampled from 162 fallow deer (Dama dama) were subjected to molecular analyses to detect bacterial (Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Leptospira spp.) and protozoan (piroplasms, Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii) pathogens. Five (3.08%) spleens were positive for A. phagocytophilum, and twelve (7.40%) spleens were positive for Theileria cervi. The remaining pathogens investigated were not detected, and no coinfections were found. The analyzed animals do not seem to have a relevant role in the spreading of these pathogens; however, monitoring is pivotal to understand the epidemiological scenarios and take appropriate preventive measures in areas frequently visited by people.