In agricultural production, it is important to determine where input usage saving can be implemented by taking energy use into consideration and to analyze the greenhouse gas emissions of agricultural activities. This study has been conducted to review orange (Citrus sinensis L.) production in terms of energy balance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study was carried out during the 2015/2016 production season in Adana, a province in Turkey. Energy balance and GHG emissions have been defined by calculating the inputs and outputs of agricultural nature used in orange production. The findings of the study indicate that the distribution of energy inputs in orange production are 11,880 MJ ha⁻¹ (34.10%) of electricity, 10,079.75 MJ ha⁻¹ (28.93%) of chemical fertilizer energy, 7630 MJ ha⁻¹ (21.90%) of chemical energy, 3052 MJ ha⁻¹ (8.76%) of diesel fuel energy, 1348.91 MJ ha⁻¹ (3.87%) of human labor energy, 378 MJ ha⁻¹ (1.09%) of irrigation water energy, 351.22 MJ ha⁻¹ (1.01%) of machinery energy and 118.80 MJ ha⁻¹ (0.34%) of lime energy. In total, input energy (IE) in orange production has been calculated as 34,838.68 MJ ha⁻¹ and the output energy (OE) has been calculated as 95,000 MJ ha⁻¹. Energy use efficiency (EUE), specific energy (SE), energy productivity (EP) and net energy (NE) have been calculated as 2.73, 0.70 MJ kg⁻¹, 1.44 kg MJ⁻¹ and 60,161.32 MJ ha⁻¹, respectively. The total energy input in the production of oranges was divided into: 47.82% direct, 52.18% indirect, 4.96% from renewable sources and 95.04% from non-renewable sources. The GHG emissions figure for orange production was 3794.26 kg CO_2–eq ha⁻¹, with electricity having the greatest share, 1983.96 (52.29%); the GHG ratio was 0.08 kg CO_2–eq kg⁻¹. According to the results, the production of orange was considered to be profitable in terms of EUE.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of water stress on yield and various physiological parameters, including the crop water stress index for tomatoes in the Central Anatolian region of Turkey. For this purpose, the irrigation schedule used in this study includes 120%, 100%, 80%, and 60% (I₁₂₀, I₁₀₀, I₈₀, I₆₀) of evaporation from the gravimetrically. Water deficit was found to cause a stress effect in tomato plants, which was reflected in changes in plants’ morphological and pomological function (such as stem diameter, fruit weight, pH, titratable acidity, and total soluble solids). Irrigation levels had a significant effect on the total yield of tomatoes. The lowest water use efficiency (WUE) was obtained from the I_60, while the highest WUE was found in the I₁₀₀ irrigation level. The CWSI was calculated using an empirical approach from measurements of infrared canopy temperatures, ambient air temperatures, and vapor pressure deficit values for four irrigation levels. The crop water stress index (CWSI) values ranged from −0.63 to a maximum value of 0.53 in I₁₂₀, from −0.27 to 0.63 in I₁₀₀, from 0.06 to 0.80 in I₈₀, and from 0.37 to 0.97 in I₆₀. There was a significant relation between yield and CWSI. The yield was correlated with mean CWSI values, and the linear equation Total yield = −2398.9CWSI + 1240.4 can be used for yield prediction. The results revealed that the CWSI value was useful for evaluating crop water stress in tomatoes and predicting yield.

Recently, with the development of technology, the number of studies on the need for energy and the possibilities of covering this need in a sustainable way has been increasing. The management of agricultural biomass and waste is cited as one of the challenges as well as a solution. Mersin and Antalya sites, where banana production is intensively practiced in Turkey, were selected as the study region. The potential amounts of energy values obtained from the waste generated during banana cultivation in the field area of study were calculated. The energy potential was calculated on the basis of the conversion of biogas that can be obtained from the waste. The values obtained were analyzed and compared with the levels of electricity used to determine the economic gains that can be achieved for Mersin and Antalya regions. The data on bananas used in study were obtained from the Turkish Statistical Institute (for the years 2016–2020). It is calculated that 2884.43 MWh of electricity can be generated in Mersin and 2218.26 MWh in Antalya per 5 years from the waste generated during banana production. The values of the number of houses whose needs can be met with the calculated five-year potential electricity amount are 1237 in Mersin and 952 in Antalya. It can be considered that reusing the potential energy that can be obtained from banana waste, examined as material for energy, used in agricultural production will result in a positive impetus to agricultural activities. Energy obtained from banana waste can cover a very small amount of the electrical energy needs of agricultural production, ranging from 0.19% to 0.34%. However, it is concluded that the potential amount of energy to be obtained by recycling not only banana waste but also other agricultural and food waste will be even higher.

This research aimed to analyze the potential amount of electrical energy from biogas energy obtained from animal wastes in Turkey and Poland. Animal waste values were calculated by taking into account the recommended literature values. In determining the biomass energy potential of livestock enterprises in Turkey and Poland, FAO’s 2012–2021 data were taken into account. The animal breeds selected as material in this study were cattle, goat, sheep, chicken, duck, goose, turkey, horse, pig, mule and donkey. Considering 10-year calculations, the potential amount of biogas energy that can be obtained from animal wastes for Turkey is 28,845,975 GJ, which is equivalent to 8,105,058 MWh of electrical energy. In Poland, the potential amount of biogas energy that can be generated from animal waste is 13,999,612 GJ, which is equivalent to 3,902,020 MWh of electricity. Moreover, it is estimated that the percentage of the potential amount of electricity to be obtained in 2021 to cover the amount of electricity consumed is 0.303% for Turkey and 0.392% for Poland. For 2021, the amount of economic gains that can be from electricity obtained was also calculated, and it was determined that this value can be 78,650,302 Euro for Turkey and 62,182,435 Euro for Poland. At the same time, it was calculated that the electricity needs of 406,170 houses in Turkey and 171,958 houses in Poland can be met in 2021. As a result, it is thought that the potential electricity to be obtained will contribute to determining energy gains and investment plans for biogas plants.

Water is crucial for agriculture and needs to be used effectively due to climate change and drought in the Mediterranean region. For this reason, to adapt to water deficit scenarios, deficit irrigation applications are increasing in importance. The aim of this research was to determine the effect of varying levels of irrigation on growth parameters and concentration of nutrients in tomato plants grown under greenhouse conditions. The irrigation schedule used in this study was designed to include 100% (control), 90%, 80% and 70% of evaporation from the class-A pan. Water deficit was found to cause a stress effect in tomato plants, which was reflected in changes in the physiological function plants, such as flowering and early ripening. In addition, the SPAD values were examined, for which the lowest value of the green color intensity of the leaves was 47.3 (I3) and the highest was 48.7 (I4). However, the results of statistical analyses show that the difference was not significant. We also observed that the height values of tomato plants were the highest in the period of seedling and fruit ripening under full irrigation. Furthermore, analysis of the macronutrient content of tomato leaves showed that the obtained values were below the threshold values recommended for manganese. Based on these and similar studies, we believe that the application of water stress is most effective during the phases in which the plants are least affected. We believe that determining the periods during which tomato or any other crop is be affected by the least water stress will be more accurate for both plant development and economic production.

Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’de ki büyükbaş hayvansal atıklardan üretilebilecek biyogaz enerjisi potansiyeli yardımıyla iller bazında elektrik enerjisi miktarı belirlenerek, elde edilebilecek elektrik enerjisinin kullanılan elektrik enerjisini karşılama yüzdelerinin belirlenmesi hedeflenmiştir. Bununla birlikte iller bazında ki mevcut biyogaz tesisleri haritalandırılmış ve elektrik enerjisi elde etmek için büyükbaş hayvansal atıkların işlenebileceği biyogaz tesisleri de haritalandırılarak, bu haritalar kıyaslanmaya çalışılmıştır. Elde edilen değerler, konuyla ilgili literatür bilgileri ile karşılaştırılarak gerekli hesaplamalar yapılmıştır. Araştırmada Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu’nun 2020 yılı verileri dikkate alınarak, 81 ilde bulunan süt sığırı ve et sığırı sayılarına bağlı olarak, üretilebilecek biyogaz enerjisi ve biyogazdan elde edilebilecek elektrik enerjisi miktarı hesaplanmaya çalışılmıştır. Türkiye’de büyükbaş hayvansal atıklarından elde edilebilecek potansiyel biyogaz enerjisi miktarının 2361063163 MJ olduğu ve bu biyogaz enerjisinin yaklaşık 656375,63 MWh elektrik enerjisine eş değer olduğu belirlenmiştir. Elektrik enerjisi üretim potansiyelinin belirlenmesi ile illerin kullandığı elektrik enerjisini hangi yüzde ile karşılayabileceği, bu yüzdelerin enerji planlamalarında değerlendirilebileceği ve ayrıca bununla birlikte elde edilen haritaların ise biyogaz tesislerine yapılacak olan yatırım planlamalarına da katkı sağlayabileceği öngörülmektedir.