Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause serious illness. This review shows the current data regarding the symptoms of acute intoxication for several toxin classes, including paralytic toxins, amnesic toxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, tetrodotoxins, diarrheic toxins, azaspiracids and palytoxins. The information available about chronic toxicity and relative potency of different analogs within a toxin class are also reported. The gaps of toxicological knowledge that should be studied to improve human health protection are discussed. In general, gathering of epidemiological data in humans, chronic toxicity studies and exploring relative potency by oral administration are critical to minimize human health risks related to these toxin classes in the near future.

Phycotoxins are marine toxins produced by phytoplankton that can get accumulated in filter feeding shellfish. Human intoxication episodes occur due to contaminated seafood consumption. Okadaic acid (OA) and dynophysistoxins (DTXs) are phycotoxins responsible for a severe gastrointestinal syndrome called diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Yessotoxins (YTXs) are marine toxins initially included in the DSP class but currently classified as a separated group. Food safety authorities from several countries have regulated the content of DSPs and YTXs in shellfish to protect human health. In mice, OA and YTX have been associated with ultrastructural heart damage in vivo. Therefore, this study explored the potential of OA, DTX-1 and YTX to cause acute heart toxicity. Cardiotoxicity was evaluated in vitro by measuring hERG (human èter-a-go-go gene) channel activity and in vivo using electrocardiogram (ECG) recordings and cardiac damage biomarkers. The results demonstrated that these toxins do not exert acute effects on hERG channel activity. Additionally, in vivo experiments showed that these compounds do not alter cardiac biomarkers and ECG in rats acutely. Despite the ultrastructural damage to the heart reported for these toxins, no acute alterations of heart function have been detected in vivo, suggesting a functional compensation in the short term.

The rise in cyanobacterial blooms due to eutrophication and climate change has increased cyanotoxin presence in water. Most current water treatment plants do not effectively remove these toxins, posing a potential risk to public health. This study introduces a water treatment approach using nanostructured beads containing magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for easy removal from liquid suspension, coated with different adsorbent materials to eliminate cyanotoxins. Thirteen particle types were produced using activated carbon, CMK-3 mesoporous carbon, graphene, chitosan, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO)-oxidised cellulose nanofibers (TOCNF), esterified pectin, and calcined lignin as an adsorbent component. The particles’ effectiveness for detoxification of microcystin-LR (MC-LR), cylindrospermopsin (CYN), and anatoxin-A (ATX-A) was assessed in an aqueous solution. Two particle compositions presented the best adsorption characteristics for the most common cyanotoxins. In the conditions tested, mesoporous carbon nanostructured particles, P1-CMK3, provide good removal of MC-LR and Merck-activated carbon nanostructured particles, P9-MAC, can remove ATX-A and CYN with high and fair efficacy, respectively. Additionally, in vitro toxicity of water treated with each particle type was evaluated in cultured cell lines, revealing no alteration of viability in human renal, neuronal, hepatic, and intestinal cells. Although further research is needed to fully characterise this new water treatment approach, it appears to be a safe, practical, and effective method for eliminating cyanotoxins from water.

Background: The development of clinical pharmacy practice for humans and animals in the recent years has resulted in new goals and challenges for pharmacists that work to improve patient care, preventing medication related problems and optimizing resources. Currently, in Spain, there are so many dogs’ and cats’ vaccines from different manufacturers, with different microorganisms’ combination which are not readily identifiable. This fact makes us wonder if they are all necessary and/or convenient, and if they meet the criteria of the international guidelines. Objective: It aimed to examine the current situation of vaccination in dogs and cats in Spain, as well as if available vaccines are suitable, or if the technical data sheets match with the recommendations of consensus guides. Methods: All available vaccines in Spain were counted, evaluated and classified by using the search engine CIMAvet, into monovalent or combined and suitable or unsuitable according to their composition and vaccination schedule with guidelines WSAVA and COLAVAC. Results: As a result, we found 15 vaccines for dogs and 7 for cats, when attending to its composition. However, it gives rise to 46 vaccines for dogs and 14 for cats, if we regarded to the different manufacturers. The 69.6% of dogs’ and 57.1% of cats’ vaccines were considered unsuitable. Resulting as optimal combinations of microorganisms: Bordetella+Parainfluenza, Distemper+Adenovirus+Parvovirus, Leptospira alone and Rabies alone for dogs and Calicivirus+Herpes virus+Panleukopenia, Leukemia alone and Rabies alone for cats. Besides, it was observed that vaccines data sheet don´t meet with international schedule in percentages of 69.6% and 64.3% respectively. Conclusion: Only 28.6% of dogs’ and 42.9% of cats’ vaccines in Spain, are considered suitable, and 30.4% of dogs’ and 35.7% of cats’ vaccines data sheets fully agree with guidelines. Thus, we highly suggest, data sheets updating a recommended vaccination schedule and the unification in vaccines nomenclature, totally necessary, from our point of view, to help veterinarians in the clinical decision-making process to vaccinate properly with the lowest risks and minimizing costs, promoting therapeutic adherence and providing a beneficial impact on animals and society.