This study empirically investigates how energy costs, environmental policy, and history of innovation (path dependency) influence energy innovation in Europe over the period 2000-2020. Using panel data for 17 European countries we analyze clean and dirty energy patenting behavior in relation to energy prices, energy taxes, carbon pricing mechanisms, and energy R&D subsidies. We estimate Poisson count data models, with robustness assessed using negative binomial specifications. The results indicate that higher energy prices are robustly associated with increased clean energy innovation, whereas energy costs do not suggest a significant effect on fossil-based innovation. Instead, dirty innovation is largely explained by accumulated fossil knowledge stocks, pointing to strong path dependence and persistent carbon lock-in. Moreover, the adoption of EU ETS is associated with higher patenting activity in both clean and fossil technologies, consistent with engaging in defensive innovation by extending existing fossil-based technological capabilities. Overall, the findings suggest that carbon pricing, while necessary, has historically been insufficient to weaken fossil innovation trajectories when path dependence is strong, leaving the energy transition constrained by carbon lock-in. Effective climate policy, therefore, requires a complementary mix in which EU-wide price signals are combined with tightly targeted public R&D subsidies for breakthrough zero-carbon technologies and deployment policies that accelerate learning and scale-up in clean niches.

Bu çalışmada, Lucas Paradoksu çerçevesinde BRICS-T ülkeleri özelinde beşerî sermayenin DYY girişleri üzerindeki etkisinin 1993-2017 dönemi için test edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. DYY girişlerinin geleneksel belirleyicileri olması bakımından ticarete açıklık, piyasa büyüklüğü, doğal kaynak zenginliği ve enflasyon oranı da modelde kullanılmıştır. Değişkenler arasında eşbütünleşme ilişkisinin tespitinden hareketle elde edilen uzun dönemli tahminci bulguları, BRICS-T ülkelerinde beşerî sermayenin DYY girişlerini pozitif yönde ve anlamlı bir şekilde etkilediğini göstermektedir. Diğer yandan doğal kaynak zenginliği ile DYY girişleri arasında pozitif, enflasyon oranı ve DYY girişleri arasında ise negatif yönlü ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Ticarete açıklık ve piyasa büyüklüğü değişkenleri kullanılan tahmincilere göre farklı sonuçlar ortaya koymuştur.

This paper reviews the models of directed technical change in the environmental context, both theoretically and empirically, with a specific emphasis on cross-sector technology spillovers. It is well-established that the direction of technological change is not uniform across production factors and does not progress neutrally. The objective is to assess whether empirical literature aligns with the theoretical insights of the model. Also, we aim to determine whether cross-sector technology spillovers impact the direction of innovations through changes in relative productivity levels during the transition process to a low-carbon economy. Our review suggests that the empirical literature is mainly expanding with research on energy types, cost, and efficiency measures and directed innovations in clean technologies are responsive to environmental policy. A limited number of studies reveal the significant impact of spillovers in directed technical change models, contributing to the advancement of clean energy and the fight against climate change. Overall, the interplay between cross-sector technology spillovers and environmental policies promoting green innovation may provide valuable insights into efforts to fight against climate change.