Airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) data are widely used for high-resolution land cover mapping. The lidar elevation data are typically used as complementary information to passive multispectral or hyperspectral imagery to enable higher land cover classification accuracy. In this paper, we examine the capabilities of a recently developed multispectral airborne laser scanner, manufactured by Teledyne Optech, for direct classification of multispectral point clouds into ten land cover classes including grass, trees, two classes of soil, four classes of pavement, and two classes of buildings. The scanner, Titan MW, collects point clouds at three different laser wavelengths simultaneously, opening the door to new possibilities in land cover classification using only lidar data. We show that the recorded intensities of laser returns together with spatial metrics calculated from the three-dimensional (3D) locations of laser returns are sufficient for classifying the point cloud into ten distinct land cover classes. Our classification methods achieved an overall accuracy of 94.7% with a kappa coefficient of 0.94 using the support vector machine (SVM) method to classify single-return points and an overall accuracy of 79.7% and kappa coefficient of 0.77 using a rule-based classifier on multireturn points. A land cover map is then generated from the classified point cloud. We show that our results outperform the common approach of rasterizing the point cloud prior to classification by ~4% in overall accuracy, 0.04 in kappa coefficient, and by up to 16% in commission and omission errors. This improvement however comes at the price of increased complexity and computational burden.

Determining why earthquake ruptures stop is a central challenge in earthquake science and seismic hazard assessment. The Pütürge segment of the East Anatolian Fault Zone, Türkiye, exhibits shallow creep (<∼3 km depth) yet hosts M > 6.5 earthquake ruptures at greater depth. Here, we evaluate whether variations in frictional stability along this segment aided arrest of the 2020 M 6.7 Elaziğ and 2023 M 7.8 Pazarcık earthquake ruptures. Analysis of Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery indicates the 2023 M 7.8 rupture propagated laterally into a metamorphic massif within the Pütürge segment, where slip rapidly decayed below detection limits. Creepmeters along this segment recorded no significant surface afterslip (<3 mm) in the following year. To investigate this fault-slip behavior, we conducted triaxial friction experiments on Pütürge fault gouge sampled from an outcrop exposure. The gouge, composed primarily of muscovite, quartz, and calcite, is velocity strengthening at conditions approximating 0–2.5 km depth and velocity weakening at 4–5 km depth. This transition to velocity-weakening friction is associated with enhanced comminution and shear localization observed microstructurally. Our results suggest that depth-dependent frictional stability of the Pütürge fault segment facilitates rupture nucleation and propagation at depth while maintaining rupture-arresting behavior near Earth’s surface.