In the process of sustainable transformation, resource-based cities (RBCs) in Heilongjiang are in a dilemma. Resilience is a key capability to help RBCs deepen sustainable development, adapt to shocks, and exit the transformation dilemma. This study aims to clarify the resilience measurements and dynamics of RBCs and propose targeted resilience enhancement strategies. First, we construct a resilience indicator system based on the urban complex adaptive system (CAS) and use principal component analysis (PCA) to specify indicator weights to obtain the resilience values of RBCs in Heilongjiang Province during 2010–2019, then use cluster analysis to classify five resilience grades. Second, we identify and analyze the resilience dynamics of RBCs in Heilongjiang Province from 2010–2019 based on the adaptive cycle framework. The results indicate that the overall resilience dynamics of RBCs have exhibited an upward trend over the past decade, but there are clear variations in the level of resilience values and dynamics between the different types of RBCs. The petroleum-based city has the highest level of resilience, is less affected by shocks, and recovers quickly. Forest-based cities have a medium level of resilience and are able to recover from shocks, but they fail to improve and remain at a medium level for a long time. Coal-based cities have a low level of resilience and find it difficult to recover from shocks, but this has improved since 2017. Finally, we propose targeted resilience enhancement strategies for RBCs of different types and resilience levels in Heilongjiang Province to provide RBCs with directional guidance for overcoming the development dilemma through resilience measures.

Objective Resource-based cities in Heilongjiang Province have encountered a series of challenges during their transformation, including resource depletion, industrial decline, environmental pollution, and population outflow. These issues stem from historical over-exploitation of resources, outdated processing methods, insufficient socioeconomic reforms, and the dominance of single-resource industrial structures. In the context of sustainable development transformation, these cities face intertwined complexities of historical legacies and emerging challenges. From the perspective of evolutionary resilience, urban resilience is defined as the capacity of the urban system to resist, transform, and adapt to risks. By adopting adaptive planning strategies and dynamic evolutionary approaches aligned with urban system development laws, cities can shift from “outcome-oriented” to “process-oriented” frameworks, offering novel pathways for sustainable transformation. However, leveraging resilience pathways to address developmental bottlenecks and deepen sustainability remains a critical research gap requiring further exploration. Methods This research measures the resilience of 9 resource-based cities in Heilongjiang Province (Daqing, Yichun, Mudanjiang, Heihe, Daxinganling, Hegang, Jixi, Shuangyashan, and Qitaihe cities) by integrating principal component analysis (PCA) and catastrophe progression method, while identifying dynamic evolution characteristics through the adaptive cycle framework. First, urban risk factors are summarized through field investigations and literature review, based on which a resilience evaluation index system is established, encompassing 4 dimensions, 12 primary indicators, 23 secondary indicators, and 59 tertiary indicators. Second, multi-source data (statistical yearbooks, spatial data, and government reports from 2010 to 2019 for nine cities) are collected, processed, and validated. Resilience values are quantified based on the integration of PCA and catastrophe progression method. Third, the adaptive cycle framework is applied to analyze resilience evolution patterns across three city types: petroleum-based, forestry-based, and coal-based types. The theoretical framework posits that resilience evolution follows a spiral process involving four phases: exploitation (r, rapid growth), conservation (K, stability), release (Ω, rapid decline), and reorganization (α, recovery). Notably, the release phase (Ω) serves as the critical juncture for cyclical transitions. Finally, tailored recommendations are proposed for each city type based on their unique evolutionary trajectories. Results The findings reveal distinct hierarchical differentiation among various types of resource-based cities in Heilongjiang Province. 1) In terms of resilience measurement outcomes, overall resilience shows an upward trend with a temporary decline in 2016, attributed to external economic shocks. The spatial distribution of resilience exhibits a stepwise increase from north to south, reflecting geographic disparities in industrial structure and policy implementation. 2) In terms of resilience evolution characteristics, petroleum-based cities shows stepwise growth with fluctuations, influenced by global petroleum price volatility and domestic policy adjustments. Forestry-based cities show steady stepwise growth, driven by sustainable forestry practices and ecological compensation policies. Coal-based cities show significant volatility alongside upward trends, linked to cyclical coal market dynamics and green transition pressures. All cities have skipped the reorganization phase (α), transitioning directly from release phase (Ω) to exploitation phase (r), resulting in fragmented cycles dominated by national Five-Year Plans and policy interventions. Conclusion The resilience evolution of resource-based cities in Heilongjiang Province has not undergone a complete four-phase adaptive cycle. Instead, these cities have transitioned directly from the release phase (Ω) to the exploitation phase (r), omitting the reorganization phase (α). Their evolutionary trajectory is heavily influenced by national Five-Year Plans and policy interventions, exhibiting three distinct characteristics: periodic discontinuity, policy dominance, and industrial heterogeneity. Therefore, this research proposes differentiated pathways for resilience enhancement based on these evolutionary characteristics: Petroleum-based cities should reduce inefficient redundant elements and enhance interconnectivity among components to facilitate a shift from a monolithic industrial structure toward economic diversification, thereby mitigating systemic collapse risks from structural homogeneity; forestry-based cities should rapidly accumulate diverse urban components (e.g., infrastructure, human capital, ecological assets) to increase systemic redundancy, strengthening endogenous drivers for resilience improvement; coal-based cities should leverage external shocks as transformative opportunities. It is supposed to, through comprehensive systemic repair and upgrading, vigorously develop new industrial and social elements to rebuild structural stability of the urban system. This research develops a tailored resilience quantification model based on the integration of PCA and catastrophe progression method and multi-year data, enriching methodological approaches for resilience research on China’s resource-based cities. The adaptive cycle framework reveals divergent evolution patterns across city types, emphasizing the need for differentiated strategies: Petroleum-based cities should prioritize market diversification, forestry-based cities should enhance ecological governance, and coal-based cities require accelerated green industrial transitions. These findings provide adaptable measurement references and quantitative tools to support sustainable development strategies for...

After Russo-Japanese War, Harbin’s urban construction and development have been greatly affected. This paper takes the urban construction and planning of Harbin as the research object from 1904 to 1907. Research on the following issues. How did Harbin’s urban development changed during the Russo-Japanese War? How did the postwar chaos affect Harbin’s society? What are the new urban problems, challenges and solutions? What is the development trend of urban land transaction in this period? This paper attempts to present the social, economic and construction conditions of Harbin in wartime, and to interpret the background and content of the urban planning scheme in 1906. Through the above contents, it reflects the characteristics of Harbin’s urban construction and planning in this special historical period.