Mining in Ecuadorian territory comprises three stages of Ecuadorian history: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican times. In its beginnings, this activity did not have regulations or a legal foundation. The first Mining Law dates back to 1830, and it has been modified until the most recent update in 2009. The Andean region consists of 10 provinces, 9 of which have registered gold concessions, the most important of which are Loja, Azuay, and in recent years, Imbabura and Pichincha, which are the provinces with the highest number of reported concessions. The objective of this study focused on analyzing the historical and current situation of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASGM) and the emergence of large-scale (industrial) mining. For the elaboration of this study, different methodological techniques were used, such as literature review, field interviews, and expert judgment validation. The main findings show that the provinces of Loja, Azuay, Imbabura, and Pichincha are the most conflictive areas in the region due to the impacts caused by mining activities. In socio-economic terms, there are conflicts between inhabitants in favor and against these activities and problems associated with human health. In environmental terms, the findings suggest historical contamination of water sources by heavy metals, which has altered the surrounding aquatic and terrestrial systems. Finally, the study concludes that implementing public policies should be promoted to balance socio-economic and environmental aspects in gold mining activities in the Andean region of Ecuador, strengthening the use of new technologies and education to raise awareness of the serious effects of mining activities.

Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM) is a source of supply in many areas of the world, especially in developing countries. This is often carried out illegally using toxic substances such as mercury. Mercury, due to its chemical–physical properties and the transport factors involved between the different environmental matrices, can percolate through soil and from surface water to groundwater. The objective of this study was to conduct a human health risk assessment. For this purpose, a screening of mercury concentrations was carried out, collecting 67 water samples at selected points, and a risk assessment was performed applying both a deterministic and a probabilistic approach. A deterministic approach is a specific analysis based on determining the values of the risk quotient (HQ) and the risk index (HI) for each receptor category (adults and children) and scenario (residential and recreational) considered; a probabilistic approach is based on stochastic simulation techniques and the evaluation of the statistical quantities. There was found to be a discrepancy between the results provided by the two approaches, with the deterministic approach suggesting a more worrisome picture. However, in general, the results showed a greater exposure in the provinces of El Oro and Esmeraldas, and a greater vulnerability of child receptors.

The Urban Green Space Index (UGSI) is an indicator that measures the quantity, quality, accessibility, and distribution of green spaces in urban environments. This study focused on analyzing the UGSI in Ecuadorian cities through a multiple linear regression model, analyzing the UGSI from both territorial and public management perspectives. Ecuador was selected as a case study due to the limited availability of research on urban green spaces in the country, despite its high ecological diversity and increasing urbanization. The model was used to explore relationships among various factors influencing urban green spaces. Government variables and key factors, such as budget allocations, were analyzed. The model revealed an inverse relationship between urban population size and per capita green space availability. In cities with 50,000 inhabitants, the average is 60 m² per person, which decreases significantly to just 5 m² per person in cities with 300,000 residents. This trend highlights the pressure of urbanization on green spaces and emphasizes the need for evidence-based urban planning to ensure equitable access and to improve quality of life. However, challenges such as the lack of updated data and opportunities for improvement in territorial planning were also identified.

The investigation allowed to determine guidelines to carry out a technical control in the granting of credits and recovery of the past due portfolio of the Savings and Credit Cooperatives, and thus to perform an adequate management in the concession of credits and recovery of past-due loans. The research design was executed with the qualitative and quantitative modality, inductive and deductive method, interviews, surveys, field research and direct observation. With the results obtained it is considered necessary to apply correctly the methods proposed to access a credit, an efficient process for the granting of credit, and to reduce the past due portfolio it is necessary to follow up and a good analysis in its verification of credits granted as well Support to meet the needs of the partners and improve their economic stability of the Institution. The investigative work established that the participation of the credit and collection department of the Cooperatives and the entire work team are fundamental elements in the implementation of a system of technically designed and evaluated procedures, suggesting that control should be exercised in the placement process and Recovery of loans and stability of financial operations in order to fulfill its institutional mission of providing productive opportunities to its partners, contributing to achieve corporate social responsibility.

Method: The methodology adopted for the research included an exhaustive bibliographic search in high impact databases such as Scopus and Web of Science, complemented with semi-structured interviews with relevant members of the RECB, field trips within the reserve, development of plots in one hectare of land, determination of diversity indices and expert judgment. Results and Discussion: The results revealed the current state of the Cofan Bermejo Ecological Reserve, which should be improved in different social aspects. In addition, the diversity indexes for the 609 individuals sampled within the study area were evaluated, of which 9 families, 9 genera and 9 species were recognized. Of which there is one cosmopolitan species of the Polypodiaceae family. On the other hand, Simpson's dominance indexes are low, with a value of (0.281) and Simpson's diversity is determined on average with (0.719). Meanwhile, Shannon's index shows a medium diversity (1.609) and Shannon's evenness index indicates a low diversity (0.732). Research Implications: The results of this study have implications for the planning and management of the Cofan Bermejo Ecological Reserve in the lowland evergreen forest. The research highlights the need for a multidisciplinary approach to the conceptualization and management of the reserve, as well as the importance of considering the landscape as a central element in the development of sustainable tourism products and experiences. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the literature by providing a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the relationship between the natural landscape and reserve management, bringing together knowledge from a variety of disciplines.