With increases in global population and urbanization, the production of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is growing rapidly, thus contributing to social and environmental concerns for sustainable waste management. This study addresses the research gap in optimizing composting, hypothesizing that integrating best practices and recent innovations can enhance the efficiency of the process. Data were collected through a systematic review of existing literature using Google Scholar and Scopus databases. The review provides an overview of municipal organic waste composting, outlining its processes, benefits, and challenges with the aim of identifying key area of further improvement and possibilities of adopting recent technological innovations. The analysis emphasized that technological advances in composting, as microbial inoculants or in-vessel composting have greatly improved the efficiency and quality of the resulting compost. However, several challenges remain, including managing contaminants such as heavy metals and microplastics, ensuring the compost quality and safety and addressing socioeconomic barriers that prevent widespread adoption. Moreover, process optimization, environmental and economic evaluation, as well as political and public involvement are essential to unlock the whole potential of composting systems.

Wastewater treatment plants generate significant amounts of sludge, a residual product that is rich in nutrients, usually considered waste, and traditionally eliminated by storage or incineration, methods that are expensive, environmentally damaging, and often unsustainable. Composting is increasingly recognized as an ecological and durable solution for managing biodegradable waste, including sludge resulting from wastewater treatment. The composting of residual sludge usually requires mixing with bulking agents, such as green waste or agricultural residues, to ensure a well-balanced carbon–nitrogen ratio. This mixture undergoes a controlled aerobic decomposition, sometimes followed by post-treatment, resulting in a stabilized final product that is nutrient-rich and pathogen-free and can be used as soil amendment or fertilizer in different agricultural or landscaping applications. By using composting, communities can reduce elimination costs, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and minimize the environmental impact of sludge management. This paper reviews recent reported experiences in the laboratory regarding full-scale sludge composting, highlighting the particularities of the processes, the influence factors, the quality of the final product, and the environmental and regulatory constraints. Composting is a sustainable and ecological solution for managing wastewater sludge, contributing to nutrient circularity, and minimizing the environmental impact.

The food industry is a high consumer of polymer packing materials, sealing materials, and engineering components used in production equipment. Biobased polymer composites used in the food industry are obtained by incorporating different biogenic materials into the structure of a base polymer matrix. Renewable resources such as microalgae, bacteria, and plants may be used as biogenic materials for this purpose. Photoautotrophic microalgae are valuable microorganisms that are able to harvest sunlight energy and capture CO₂ into biomass. They are characterized by their metabolic adaptability to environmental conditions, higher photosynthetic efficiency than terrestrial plants, and natural macromolecules and pigments. The flexibility of microalgae to grow in either low-nutrient or nutrient-rich environments (including wastewater) has led to the attention for their use in various biotechnological applications. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are the main three classes of macromolecular compounds contained in microalgal biomass. The content in each of these components depends on their growth conditions. In general, proteins represent 40–70% of microalgae dry biomass, followed by carbohydrates (10–30%) and lipids (5–20%). A distinctive feature of microalgae cells is the presence of light-harvesting compounds such as photosynthetic pigments carotenoids, chlorophylls, and phycobilins, which are also receiving growing interest for applications in various industrial fields. The study comparatively reports on polymer composites obtained with biomass made of two species of green microalgae: Chlorella vulgaris and filamentous, gram-negative cyanobacterium Arthrospira. Experiments were conducted to reach an incorporation ratio of the biogenic material into the matrix in the 5–30% range, and the resulting materials were characterized by their mechanical and physicochemical properties.

The preparation of polymer composites that incorporate material of a biogenic nature in the polymer matrices may lead to a reduction in fossil polymer consumption and a potentially higher biodegradability. Furthermore, microalgae biomass as biogenic filler has the advantage of fast growth and high tolerance to different types of culture media with higher production yields than those provided by the biomass of terrestrial crops. On the other hand, algal biomass can be a secondary product in wastewater treatment processes. For the present study, an SBS polymer composite (SBSC) containing 25% (w/w) copolymer SBS1 (linear copolymer: 30% styrene and 70% butadiene), 50% (w/w) copolymer SBS2 (linear copolymer: 40% styrene and 60% butadiene), and 25% (w/w) paraffin oil was prepared. Arthrospira platensis biomass (moisture content 6.0 ± 0.5%) was incorporated into the SBSC in 5, 10, 20, and 30% (w/w) ratios to obtain polymer composites with spirulina biomass. For the biodegradation studies, the ISO 14855-1:2012(E) standard was applied, with slight changes, as per the specificity of our experiments. The degradation of the studied materials was followed by quantitatively monitoring the CO₂ resulting from the degradation process and captured by absorption in NaOH solution 0.5 mol/L. The structural and morphological changes induced by the industrial composting test on the materials were followed by physical–mechanical, FTIR, SEM, and DSC analysis. The obtained results were compared to create a picture of the material transformation during the composting period. Thus, the collected data indicate two biodegradation processes, of the polymer and the biomass, which take place at the same time at different rates, which influence each other. On the other hand, it is found that the material becomes less ordered, with a sponge-like morphology; the increase in the percentage of biomass leads to an advanced degree of degradation of the material. The FTIR analysis data suggest the possibility of the formation of peptide bonds between the aromatic nuclei in the styrene block and the molecular residues resulting from biomass biodegradation. It seems that in industrial composting conditions, the area of the polystyrene blocks from the SBS-based composite is preferentially transformed in the process.

Bio-fillers are intensively studied for advanced polymer composite circular design and production. In this context, the algal biomass may be considered an important and relatively low-cost resource, when harvested as a by-product from wastewater treatment plants. The biomass of the algal species Chlorella vulgaris is frequently used in this type of environmental process, and its macro constituents’ composition ranges from around 15–25% carbohydrates, 10–20% lipids, and 50–60% proteins. Poly (styrene-butadiene-styrene) (SBS) copolymers have a matrix composed of glassy polystyrene domains connected by flexible polybutadiene segments. Although the physical-mechanical properties of SBS copolymers recommend them for many industrial applications, they have the drawback of low biodegradability. This study aimed to assess the aerobic biodegradability of polymer composites by integrating biomass from Chlorella vulgaris at varying mass percentages of 5, 10, and 20% into SBS copolymer composites. Biodegradation tests were conducted under industrial composting conditions (58 °C and 50% relative humidity) for 180 days. The biodegradability of materials was evaluated by measuring the CO₂ produced in each vessel during the study period. Potential correlations between the amount of carbon dioxide released and the percentage of biomass added to the polymer matrix were examined. Structural and morphological changes were assessed using Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermal analysis (DSC), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Physical and chemical testing revealed a decrease in sample density after the industrial composting test, along with noticeable changes in melt flow index (MFI). The observed physical and chemical changes, coupled with FTIR, SEM, and DSC data, indicate increased cross-linking and higher porosity in biodegraded polymer structures with higher biomass content. This behavior is likely due to the formation of cross-linked connections between polymer chains and polypeptide chains resulting from protein degradation, enhancing connections between polystyrene units facilitated by peptide bonds with the benzene units of the styrene blocks within the polymer matrix.