How can the interactive mode of a map be optimized to facilitate efficient positioning and improve cognitive efficiency? This paper addresses this crucial aspect of map design. It explores the impact of spatial reference frames, map dimensionality, and navigation modes on spatial orientation efficiency, as well as their interactions, through empirical eye-movement experiments. The results demonstrate the following: (1) When using a 2D fixed map in an allocentric reference frame, participants exhibit a high correct rate, a low cognitive load, and a short reaction time. In contrast, when operating within an egocentric reference frame using a 2D rotating map, participants demonstrate a higher correct rate, a reduced cognitive load, and a quicker reaction time. (2) The simplicity of 2D maps, despite their reduced authenticity compared to 3D maps, diminishes users’ cognitive load and enhances positioning efficiency. (3) The fixed map aligns more closely with the cognitive habits of participants in the allocentric reference frame, while the rotating map corresponds better to the cognitive habits of participants in the egocentric reference frame, thereby improving their cognitive efficiency. This study offers insights that can inform the optimization design of spatial orientation efficiency.

Mobile map landmark symbols are pivotal in conveying spatial semantics and enhancing users’ perception of digital maps. This study employs a three-factor hybrid experimental design to investigate the effects of different landmark symbol types and their color associations with annotations on search performance using eye tracking methods. Utilizing the Tobii X2-60 eye tracker, 40 participants engaged in a visual search task across three symbol types (icons, indexes, and symbols) and two color conditions (consistent and inconsistent). This study also examines the impact of gender on search performance. The results indicate that INDEX, emphasizing the landmarks’ functions and key features, most effectively improve search accuracy and efficiency while demanding the least cognitive effort. In contrast, SYMBOL type characters, with clear semantics and minimal information, require less visual attention, facilitating faster preliminary processing. Additionally, cognitive style differences between genders affect these symbols’ effectiveness in visual searches. A careful selection of symbol types and color combinations can significantly enhance user interaction with mobile maps.

Mobile map landmark symbols are pivotal in conveying spatial semantics and enhancing users' perception of digital maps. This study employs a three-factor hybrid experimental design to investigate the effects of different landmark symbol types and their color associations with annotations on search performance using eye-tracking methods. Utilizing the Tobii X2-60 eye tracker, 40 participants engaged in a visual search task across three symbol types (icons, indexes, and symbols) and two color conditions (consistent and inconsistent). The study also examines the impact of gender on search performance. Results indicate that INDEX symbols, emphasizing landmarks' functions and key features, most effectively improve search accuracy and efficiency while demanding the least cognitive effort. In contrast, SYMBOL type characters, with clear semantics and minimal information, require less visual attention, facilitating faster preliminary processing. Additionally, cognitive style differences between genders affect these symbols' effectiveness in visual search. Careful selection of symbol types and color combinations can significantly enhance user interaction with mobile maps.

Head-Up Display (HUD) systems are widely used in vehicles to overlay navigation prompts in the driver’s field of view, thereby reducing eyes-off-road time. However, suboptimal information presentation may impose extra cognitive demands and lead to driver distraction. To quantify the effects of key HUD navigation design factors on navigation task performance and cognitive workload, a 2 × 2 within-subjects experiment was conducted, manipulating display position (upper vs. lower visual field) and the presence of textual navigation information (with vs. Without text). Thirty university students with driving experience completed navigation tasks under four conditions in a single-lane urban driving simulation. Each task lasted 2–4 min and included six turning prompts. Task performance (accuracy, mean reaction time, and total driving time), subjective workload (PAAS), and eye-tracking measures (mean fixation duration, mean pupil diameter, fixation count, and fixation count proportion) were collected and analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA. Results showed that display position significantly affected driving efficiency and subjective workload: lower-field displays produced shorter reaction times and lower PAAS scores, while accuracy and total driving time showed no significant differences. Eye-tracking results indicated higher fixation counts and fixation ratios for lower displays. A significant interaction between display position and text was observed for mean fixation duration, whereas mean pupil diameter showed no significant effects. These findings indicate that display position is a critical factor in HUD navigation design, while textual information primarily influences visual inspection patterns rather than overall navigation task performance.