Earth Observation (EO) data can be leveraged to estimate environmental variables that influence the transmission cycle of the pathogens that lead to mosquito-borne diseases (MBDs). The aim of this scoping review is to examine the state-of-the-art and identify knowledge gaps on the latest methods that used satellite EO data in their epidemiological models focusing on malaria, dengue and West Nile Virus (WNV). In total, 43 scientific papers met the inclusion criteria and were considered in this review. Researchers have examined a wide variety of methodologies ranging from statistical to machine learning algorithms. A number of studies used models and EO data that seemed promising and claimed to be easily replicated in different geographic contexts, enabling the realization of systems on regional and national scales. The need has emerged to leverage furthermore new powerful modeling approaches, like artificial intelligence and ensemble modeling and explore new and enhanced EO sensors towards the analysis of big satellite data, in order to develop accurate epidemiological models and contribute to the reduction of the burden of MBDs.

Floods are disastrous events as they induce fatalities, damages to the environment, properties and infrastructure, at a global level. The Region of Attica, that hosts Athens (capital of Greece), has suffered various floods, including the severe flood in Mandra (2017) with 24 fatalities. In 2021, a Programming Agreement was signed between the Prefecture of Attica and the National Observatory of Athens to conduct the research study «Earthquake, fire and flood risk assessment in the Region of Attica» (Part A) in selected and most vulnerable areas. In the framework of this research and technical work, state-ofthe-art methodologies were developed and implemented that support multi-parameter flood risk assessment and management planning at high spatial resolution (building block level). This work integrates different data sources, including remote sensing, in-situ measurements, field visits, and simulations, and is characterized by considerable added value, as it supports the civil protection authorities as well as all the other relevant stakeholders in the decision-making, first response and management of floods. Furthermore, this innovative approach is transferable, adaptable and scalable, and it is now being implemented in the Garyllis river basin in Cyprus, in the framework of the «EXCELSIOR» H2020 Widespread Teaming project.

Flood risk assessment for vulnerable areas serves the needs of the stakeholders for flood management. Therefore, it’s essential for the applied methodology to be detailed and use advanced techniques depending on the characteristics of each study area. In the Programming Agreement with the Prefecture of Attica, the Operational Unit “BEYOND Centre of EO Research & Satellite Remote Sensing” of the Institute of Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications & Remote Sensing (IAASARS) of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA), in cooperation with the Research Group ITIA of the Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering of the School of Civil Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) study five flood-stricken river basins in the region of Attica, which affect 23 Municipalities. It’s the first time that such a holistic approach for flood risk assessment is implemented on building block level in Greece. Hence, taking into consideration the regional scale and the high spatial resolution in hydrologic and hydraulic models and flood hazards maps, detailed field visits are conducted following a specific methodology. Specifically, cross section measurements of pipes, culvers, bridges are gathered from the field and used for the terrain modification of Digital Elevation Model. Additionally, many high-risk points are identified in residential areas, road network and other critical infrastructures, which are classified based on their risk level and accompanied by a detailed technical report. The importance of field visits lies on the need of updated and high resolution input data, the understanding and the functionality of a constantly changing river basin including the anthropogenic and environmental stressors. As a result, enhanced models are created using both earth observation and field data and the reduction of the uncertainty is achieved comparing with past studies.

As cities have expanded into floodplains, the need for their protection has become crucial, prompting the evolution of flood studies. Here, we describe the operational tools, methods and processes used in flood risk engineering studies in the 1970s, and we evaluate the technological progress up to the present day. To this aim, we reference relevant regulations and legislation and the recorded experiences of engineers who performed hydrological, surveying and hydraulic studies in the 1970s. These are compared with the operational framework of a contemporary flood risk assessment study conducted in the Pikrodafni basin in the Attica region. We conclude that, without the technologically advanced tools available today, achieving the level of detail and accuracy in flood mapping that is now possible would have been unfeasible, even with significant human resources. However, ongoing urban development and growth continue to encroach upon flood plains that have existed for centuries, contributing to increased flood risk.

Flood risk assessment in vulnerable areas is crucial for efficient flood risk management, including the analysis and design of civil protection measures and the implementation of studies with proper interventions towards mitigating flood risk. This is even more crucial in highly dense urban river basins such as the ones in the region of Attica, which is hosting Athens, the capital of Greece, as well as critical infrastructures and important social economic activities. In the framework of the Programming Agreement with the Prefecture of Attica, the Operational Unit BEYOND Centre of EO Research and Satellite Remote Sensing of the Institute of Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications & Remote Sensing (IAASARS) of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA), in cooperation with the Research Group ITIA of the Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering of the School of Civil Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), study five flood-stricken river basins in the region of Attica, which affect 23 Municipalities. The research teams collect all available data, conduct detailed field visits, run hydrological and hydraulic models, and assess flood hazard, flood vulnerability and eventually flood risk in every area of interest. Furthermore, high-risk critical points are identified, and mitigation measures are proposed, both structural and non-structural, in order to achieve effective crisis management for the protection of the population, the properties and the infrastructures. In addition, the BEYOND Centre has developed a web GIS platform where all the collected and produced data, the flood hazard, vulnerability and risk maps, as well as the identified critical points, the refuge areas and escape routes are stored and made available. All the relevant stakeholders and the competent authorities, who are directly or indirectly involved in civil protection, participate in dedicated workshops designed for their needs, and moreover, the studies’ general outcomes are disseminated to the wider public for raising awareness purposes. The response of the end users is very positive, and their feedback very constructive. The methodology and the outputs of the project are in line with the requirements for the implementation of the EU Floods Directive 2007/60/EC, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the UN SDGs, as well as the GEO’s Societal Benefit Areas.

The assessment of human progress often relies on factors such as the availability of energy and resources, the improvement of life expectancy, education, equality, democracy, justice, civilization, and other crucial elements. A significant concern within this evaluation revolves around the inclusivity and accessibility of technological advancements. However, human progress is more than that, since it can also manifest itself in the scientific and technical advances in treating natural hazards presenting a diachronic issue to societies’ resilience. In this study, the progress of engineering in analyzing and managing flood risk between the 1970s and present times is evaluated. To this aim, we utilize the experience of engineers who completed surveying, hydrological, and hydraulic studies for flood risk assessment in the 1970s, to carry out comparisons with recent methodologies applied in the framework of the Programming Agreement between the Prefecture of Attica and the Operational Unit BEYOND Centre of EO Research and Satellite Remote Sensing of the Institute of Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications & Remote Sensing (IAASARS) of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA), in cooperation with the Research Group ITIA of the Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering of the School of Civil Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) to the Pikrodafni stream, in Attica, Greece. Specifically, we quantify the progress made and differences between the two periods, in terms of human resources, computational cost, and accuracy of practices and methodologies.