Lameness or leg weakness is the main cause of poor poultry welfare and serious economic losses in meat-type poultry production worldwide. Disorders related to the legs are often associated with multifactorial aetiology which makes diagnosis and proper treatment difficult. Among the infectious agents, bacteria of genus Staphylococcus are one of the most common causes of bone infections in poultry and are some of the oldest bacterial infections described in poultry. Staphylococci readily infect bones and joints and are associated with bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO), spondylitis, arthritis, tendinitis, tenosynovitis, osteomyelitis, turkey osteomyelitis complex (TOC), bumblefoot, dyschondroplasia with osteomyelitis and amyloid arthropathy. Overall, 61 staphylococcal species have been described so far, and 56% of them (34/61) have been isolated from clinical cases in poultry. Although Staphylococcus aureus is the principal cause of poultry staphylococcosis, other Staphylococcus species, such as S. agnetis, S. cohnii, S. epidermidis, S. hyicus, S. simulans, have also been isolated from skeletal lesions. Antimicrobial treatment of staphylococcosis is usually ineffective due to the location and type of lesion, as well as the possible occurrence of multidrug-resistant strains. Increasing demand for antibiotic-free farming has contributed to the use of alternatives to antibiotics. Other prevention methods, such as better management strategies, early feed restriction or use of slow growing broilers should be implemented to avoid rapid growth rate, which is associated with locomotor problems. This review aims to summarise and address current knowledge on skeletal disorders associated with Staphylococcus spp. infection in poultry.

This review aims to summarize recent discoveries and advancements regarding the characteristics of Staphylococcus agnetis (S. agnetis) and its role in poultry pathology. S. agnetis is an emerging pathogen that was primarily associated with mastitis in dairy cattle. After a presumed host jump from cattle to poultry, it was identified as a pathological agent in broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), causing lameness induced by bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO), septicemia, and valvular endocarditis. Economic and welfare losses caused by lameness are global problems in the poultry industry, and S. agnetis has been shown to have a potential to induce high incidences of lameness in broiler chickens. S. agnetis exhibits a distinct repertoire of virulence factors found in many different staphylococci. It is closely related to S. hyicus and S. chromogenes, hence infections caused by S. agnetis may be misdiagnosed or even undiagnosed. As there are very few reports on S. agnetis in poultry, many facts about its pathogenesis, epidemiology, routes of transmission, and the potential impacts on the poultry industry remain unknown.

Lameness in poultry is a significant issue in modern meat production that adversely affects both animal welfare and economic outcomes due to poor leg health, reduced locomotor function, increased feed conversion ratios, and poor performance. Fast-growing broilers are particularly susceptible to lameness, with Staphylococcus being a major bacterial cause of skeletal infections. The aim of this study was to identify Staphylococcus species isolated from skeletal lesions in broiler chickens and to characterize the factors that facilitate such infections. Bacterial strains were isolated from 25 commercial broiler flocks in eastern Poland. The median prevalence of Staphylococcus in birds per flock was 60%. In total, 47% of the examined chickens and 88% of the examined flocks tested positive for Staphylococcus. The main bone sites affected by staphylococci were the femur (56.7%), femoral head (necrosis) (34.3%), hock joints (9.0%), femoral head (transient necrosis) (9.0%), tibiotarsus (7.5%), foot pads (dermatitis) (3.0%), and stifle (knee) joints (1.5%). Of all 93 Staphylococcus strains, 59% (55/93) were isolated from the femora. Twelve staphylococcal species were identified, all coagulase-negative, where Staphylococcus cohnii (24.7%) was the most prevalent species, followed by S. epidermidis (16.1%), S. hominis (15.1%), S. lentus (10.8%), S. saprophyticus (9.7%), S. chromogenes (8.6%), S. arlettae (4.3%), S. sciuri (4.3%), S. haemolyticus (2.2%), S. xylosus (2.2%), S. carnosus (1.1%), and S. gallinarum (1.1%). Eleven and six different staphylococcal species were implicated in the pathogenesis of femoral and tibiotarsal lesions, respectively. More than one Staphylococcus species was isolated from 47.8% of all Staphylococcus-positive chickens. Nearly all (97.8%) of coagulase-negative staphylococci isolates had biofilm-forming ability, but most of them were categorized as weak biofilm producers. The highest biofilm production was observed in the strains that caused femoral head osteonecrosis and footpad dermatitis. Staphylococcus chromogenes, S. lentus, and S. epidermidis exhibited the highest DNase and/or gelatinase activity. Despite the low prevalence of certain adhesin genes, the eno gene encoding laminin-binding protein was highly represented in staphylococci (75.3%). The study highlights the complex nature of coagulase-negative staphylococcal infections in poultry and underscores the need for further research into their virulence mechanisms and control strategies.

Background: Lameness in broiler chickens, frequently caused by bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO), poses a major challenge to intensive poultry production due to its adverse impact on animal welfare and farm economics. While Staphylococcus aureus has traditionally been considered the principal staphylococcal pathogen in poultry, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) are increasingly implicated in skeletal infections. This study aimed to characterize the phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance profiles of 93 CoNS isolates representing 12 Staphylococcus species. Isolates were recovered from bone and joint lesions of lame broiler chickens from 25 commercial flocks in Poland and were characterized using disk diffusion testing, PCR-based detection of selected resistance genes, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and exploratory whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Results: Disk diffusion testing and PCR screening revealed a high prevalence of resistance to penicillin, doxycycline, and erythromycin, with bl a _Z (37.6%; 35/93), lnu (A) (37.6%; 35/93), tet (L) (25.8%; 24/93), tet (M) (22.6%; 21/93), and erm (C) (12.9%; 12/93) being the most commonly detected determinants. The mecA gene, conferring resistance to β-lactams, was detected in a subset of isolates (16.1%; 15/93) although phenotypic resistance did not always correlate with mecA presence. Femoral-head lesions (FHN/FHT/FHS; n = 50) yielded isolates with resistance profiles broadly similar to those observed in the overall collection. PFGE of S. cohnii demonstrated genetic heterogeneity within the analyzed subset. Whole-genome analysis of S. cohnii strain SC27 identified multiple AMR-associated determinants and mobile genetic elements. Conclusions: These findings indicate that CoNS associated with broiler skeletal lesions can harbor diverse AMR determinants linked to several widely used antimicrobial classes. Our findings are primarily relevant from an epidemiological and surveillance perspective. The study also adds new genomic and epidemiological context to current knowledge of AMR in broiler-associated CoNS and supports their inclusion in ongoing veterinary and One Health-oriented surveillance efforts.