Probiotics are live microorganisms that induce health benefits in the host. Taking probiotics is generally safe and well tolerated by pregnant women and their children. Consumption of probiotics can result in both prophylactic and therapeutic effects. In healthy adult humans, the gut microbiome is stable at the level of the dominant taxa: Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, and has a higher presence of Verrucomicrobia. During pregnancy, an increase in the number of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria phyla and a decrease in the beneficial species Roseburia intestinalis and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii are observed. Pregnancy is a “window” to the mother’s future health. The aim of this paper is to review studies assessing the potentially beneficial effects of probiotics in preventing the development of diseases that appear during pregnancy, which are currently considered as risk factors for the development of metabolic syndrome, and consequently, reducing the risk of developing maternal metabolic syndrome in the future. The use of probiotics in gestational diabetes mellitus, preeclampsia and excessive gestational weight gain is reviewed. Probiotics are a relatively new intervention that can prevent the development of these disorders during pregnancy, and thus, would reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome resulting from these disorders in the mother’s future.

The term ‘cytokine storm’ (CS) applies to a pathological autoimmune reaction when the interactions that lead to cytokine production are destabilised and may even lead to death. CS may be induced by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In this study, we present our analysis of certain pathological processes that induce a CS in pregnant and postpartum women. We draw our attention to the similarities between the severe course of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). It is noteworthy that many of the criteria used to diagnose HLH are described as COVID-19 mortality predictors. Cytokine storms are considered to be an important cause of death in patients with the severe course of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Due to the fact that pregnant women are in an immunosuppressive state, viral pulmonary infections are more perilous for them—possible risks include miscarriage, intrauterine growth restriction or birth before the term; sometimes ventilation support is needed. HLH should be considered in pregnant and puerperal women suffering from moderately severe to severe COVID-19 and presenting with: fever unresponsive to antibiotic therapy, cytopenia, hepatitis and hyperferritinaemia. The HLH disorder is rare and difficult to diagnose; however, its early detection could reduce patient mortality.

The process of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is crucial in the implantation of the blastocyst and subsequent placental development. The trophoblast, consisting of villous and extravillous zones, plays different roles in these processes. Pathological states, such as placenta accreta spectrum (PAS), can arise due to dysfunction of the trophoblast or defective decidualization, leading to maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Studies have drawn parallels between placentation and carcinogenesis, with both processes involving EMT and the establishment of a microenvironment that facilitates invasion and infiltration. This article presents a review of molecular biomarkers involved in both the microenvironment of tumors and placental cells, including placental growth factor (PlGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), E-cadherin (CDH1), laminin γ2 (LAMC2), the zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox (ZEB) proteins, αVβ3 integrin, transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), β-catenin, cofilin-1 (CFL-1), and interleukin-35 (IL-35). Understanding the similarities and differences in these processes may provide insights into the development of therapeutic options for both PAS and metastatic cancer.

Anemia is a condition in which the number of red blood cells (RBC) is insufficient to meet the body's physiological needs for oxygen transport. A limiting factor for the erythrocyte mass increase is iron deficiency, which can also have a negative impact on the pregnancy's prognosis. The most frequent pathogenic cause of anemia in pregnancy is iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Biochemical tests such as serum iron concentration, total iron binding capacity (TIBC), transferrin concentration, and ferritin concentration are decreased in iron deficiency anemia. In clinical practice, iron deficiency is defined as low serum ferritin or a decreased percentage of transferrin saturation by iron. Usually, the diagnosis begins with the determination of serum ferritin. Although iron supplementation for iron deficiency is advised as soon as the condition has been diagnosed, prophylactic iron delivery is still under discussion. In patients for whom oral iron is ineffective or contraindicated, intravenous iron can be used to restore lost iron.

Primary dysmenorrhea is defined as pain in the pelvic area that occurs for no specific reason during menstrual cycle. Dysmenorrhea occurs in 50% to 90% of adolescent girls and women of reproductive age which makes it one of the most common causes of pelvic pain in women. The mechanism of this condition is overproduction of prostaglandins by the endometrium, causing uterine hypercontractility, thereby leading to uterine muscle ischemia, hypoxia and pain. Dysmenorrhea significantly reduces the quality of women life, often making it impossible to perform daily activities and, in addition, it may cause a mental stress that makes both professional and school life difficult. Despite this, females often consider these symptoms as a normal part of their menstrual cycle, which makes this disease underrated and untreated. Dysmenorrhea can be treated in a various ways such as non-pharmacological, pharmacological and surgical. However, women with a typical history of primary dysmenorrhea can commence empirical therapy without any additional tests. Hormonal contraception and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs have proved to be effective in this treatment. However, if conventional treatment is contraindicated, alternative treatments such as topical heat, lifestyle modification, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, dietary supplements, acupuncture, and acupressure may be used. Surgical treatment is possible, but it is used rarely and only in severe cases of treatment-resistant dysmenorrhea. However, it should be emphasized how important it is to exclude secondary causes of dysmenorrhea.

Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) has a wide range of applications. For over 25 years, it has primarily been utilized for assessing body composition. This method is non-invasive, portable, widely available, cost-effective, and user-friendly, offering the advantage of repeatability and minimal dependence on patient cooperation. BIA measures the impedance of the whole body, specifically the body’s resistance to alternating current. In postpartum women, who undergo significant physiological changes following childbirth, BIA can serve as a valuable diagnostic and monitoring tool. It is commonly employed to track body weight and fat reduction, and it facilitates the differentiation of fat mass, muscle mass, and body water content. This enables the customization of nutritional plans and the development of individualized training regimens tailored to the patient’s health status. Additionally, BIA aids in the assessment of hydration status, which is particularly critical during the postpartum period when women often experience fluid retention. Furthermore, optimal hydration is essential for lactation and maintaining favorable conditions for breastfeeding. BIA is also invaluable for evaluating nutritional status, micronutrient balance, and preventing both overweight and malnutrition. Moreover, BIA supports physical recovery by monitoring muscle mass, thereby assisting in the assessment of pelvic floor muscle regeneration following childbirth.