The utility of DNA Barcoding for species identification and discovery has catalyzed a concerted effort to build the global reference library; however, many animal groups of economical or conservational importance remain poorly represented. This study aims to contribute DNA barcode records for all ground squirrel species (Xerinae, Sciuridae, Rodentia) inhabiting Eurasia and to test efficiency of this approach for species discrimination. Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene sequences were obtained for 97 individuals representing 16 ground squirrel species of which 12 were correctly identified. Taxonomic allocation of some specimens within four species was complicated by geographically restricted mtDNA introgression. Exclusion of individuals with introgressed mtDNA allowed reaching a 91.6% identification success rate. Significant COI divergence (3.5–4.4%) was observed within the most widespread ground squirrel species (Spermophilus erythrogenys, S. pygmaeus, S. suslicus, Urocitellus undulatus), suggesting the presence of cryptic species. A single putative NUMT (nuclear mitochondrial pseudogene) sequence was recovered during molecular analysis; mitochondrial COI from this sample was amplified following re-extraction of DNA. Our data show high discrimination ability of 100 bp COI fragments for Eurasian ground squirrels (84.3%) with no incorrect assessments, underscoring the potential utility of the existing reference librariy for the development of diagnostic ‘mini-barcodes’.

Using a series of country-wide transects and a questionnaire administered to those with knowledge of marmot populations, we estimated that there are now about 8 million marmots in Mongolia. Our survey and previous studies of maximal marmot abundances produced estimates that ranged from 21 to 24 million animals. Our research showed that the decline in marmot populations from the beginning of 1990-th to 2007 was mostly due to increased hunting pressure. Hunting pressure increased when foreign buyers purchased marmot pelts unlimited offering significantly higher prices than offered in the past. These higher prices lead to the initiation of hunting during the spring reproductive season of marmots and the increased use of traps and snares to capture marmots. Greater access to automobiles and an improved highway system lead to more widespread and intense hunting of marmots than in the past. In the 7 years after 2000 there was increased subsistence hunting of marmots for food, fur, and traditional medicines. A spring drought during portions of the 7 year period may have deceased marmot numbers. Also contributing to the decline of marmots during this period was an increase in the number of dogs used by shepherds — dogs that preyed on marmots.

Phylogenetic reconstructions of the genus Marmota were compared using data based on mitochondrial genes cit b (Kruckenhauser et al. 1999, Steppan et al. 1999, Herron et al. 2004), NADH-dehydrogenase subunit 4 (Kruckenhauser et al. 1999) and D-loop sequences and inter-SINEs nuclear DNA pattern (our data) as molecular markers. These studies present the evidence of a recent origin and North American descent of marmots. Most of the data reveal Nearctic and Palearctic groups of species, but the composition of the groups differ. M. monax and M. broweri are grouped with Nearctic or Palearctic marmots on different trees. Existence on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA trees of closely-related species groups, such as bobak- and camtschatica-groups, reflects a recent Pleistocene evolution. Low mitochondrial and high nuclear genetic distances in the pair M. menzbieri-M. caudata probably indicate their remote hybridization. A genetic affinity of M. vancouverensis and M. caligata demonstrates insufficient time since their separate evolution for the accumulation of speciesspecific molecular differences. Causes of variance in different molecular phylogenetic trees of Marmota are discussed. A consensus phylogenetic tree of the genus Marmota is proposed.

Russia has a number of historical foci of zoonotic anthropogenic diseases. In Central Russia, the Republic of Mordovia is one of such areas, a region being known to have foci of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and tularemia. It therefore requires continuous monitoring. The role of small terrestrial mammals as reservoirs of zoonoses has been previously proven for the region. The aim of this work is to take an integrated approach to assess the role of terrestrial and subterranean small mammals. Subterranean mammals are often not considered important reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens that cause human morbidity. Among small mammals in the wild environment, the bank vole, the yellow-necked mouse and the house mouse play important roles as vectors of zoonoses. Among wild subterranean mammals, the greater mole rat is important as a vector of tularemia and HFRS. We analyzed homogenized internal organs of these animals (lungs, spleen, kidneys). Of all samples from the greater mole rat, 83% were positive for tularemia antigens and 17% were positive forHFRS. None of the analyzed European moles had antigens of tularemia and HFRS. No double infection with both tularemia and hantavirus was detected in the subterranean mammals. Double infection was found among terrestrial mammals in the bank vole and the forest dormouse.

Phylogenetic and taxonomic relationships in the genus Marmota were examined using inter-SINE PCR. The primers used were complementary to the consensus sequences of two short retroposons, MIR and B1-dID. The results suggest long-term genetic isolation of Nearctic and Palearctic marmots, but do not support subgeneric subdivision because of relatively low genetic differences between the marmot groups. Confirmation was received for the isolation of bobak and camtschatica, but not the caudata intrageneric species groups. Based on comparison of the mitochondrial and nuclear genome differences, the possibility of ancient hybridization between M. menzbieri and M. caudata was recognized. Species independence of M. kastschenkoi within the suggested superspecies of M. baibacina was supported.