The meteoric rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), marked by decreased antibiotic effectiveness against pathogenic bacteria, has sparked widespread concern. This phenomenon increases potential threats to public health by significantly hampering the clinical use of currently available antimicrobial agents, such as macrolides, β-lactam and glycopeptides antibiotics. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), namely the Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), is a common opportunistic pathogen that causes various types of infections and has become one of the top healthcare problems, particularly in low-income countries. In light of bacterial evolution and the unintentional use of antibiotics for medical purposes in communities and hospitals, as well as in agriculture and livestock for non-medical purposes. These events have contributed to the development and spread of antimicrobial resistance. Furthermore, resistant to our most muscular treatments against invasive S. aureus infections, such as vancomycin, is no longer successful due to the emergence of Vancomycin-Resistant S. aureus (VRSA). The scientific community is looking for creative and spectacularly effective strategies to address this global issue in response to this pandemic threat generated by the spread of antimicrobial resistance strains, with the threat of limited treatment choices against S. aureus. In this review, we highlighted the molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance and explained the antibiotic resistance profile of Methicillin-resistant S. aureus. On the other hand, we discuss distinguished tactics for manipulating S. aureus resistance mechanisms, such as the discovery of new chemical entities that possess antimicrobial activity with novel mechanisms of action, utilization of combinatorial antibiotic therapies, chemical derivatization and repurposing of existing known drugs to improve their antibacterial efficacy, design novel vaccine for S. aureus, antimicrobial peptides and nanoparticles as a magic bullet, and finally, by implementing the One Health Agenda against S. aureus, this holistic strategy seeks to address the spread of antibiotic resistance across the interrelated health loop of human, animals, and environments.

Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), a Gram-negative pathogen, is a leading cause of hospital-acquired infections in Sudan and worldwide. The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains has severely limited treatment options, underscoring the urgent need for an effective vaccine. In this study, we employed reverse vaccinology and immunoinformatics to design a novel multi-epitope vaccine targeting the hypervirulent NUBRI-K strain. Two conserved, non-host homologous iron acquisition proteins, IucA/IucC and FyuA, were prioritized as targets. The vaccine construct integrates six B-cell, six cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), and six helper T lymphocyte (HTL) epitopes, linked by optimized spacers and fused to a β-defensin adjuvant. Computational analyses confirmed strong antigenicity (1.0429), non-allergenicity, and favorable solubility (0.477). Molecular docking revealed high-affinity binding to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) (-278.22 kcal/mol), stabilized by eight hydrogen bonds and two salt bridges. Structural validation showed that 91 % of residues were located in favored regions of the Ramachandran plot. Additionally, CABSflex 2.0 dynamics analysis confirmed stable vaccine-TLR4 interactions, with minimal residue-level fluctuations (RMSF <1.5 Å), indicating conformational stability of the complex. In silico immune simulations predicted potent humoral and cellular responses, including elevated IgG/IgM titers, T-cell proliferation, and IFN-γ secretion. The construct was further optimized for mammalian expression, achieving an ideal GC content (48.27 %) and a codon adaptation index (CAI) of 1.0, facilitating efficient in silico cloning into the pcDNA3 vector. By targeting conserved iron acquisition systems, this vaccine candidate presents a promising strategy to combat antibiotic-resistant K. pneumoniae while minimizing selective pressure. Future in vitro and in vivo studies are warranted to validate its immunogenicity and protective efficacy.

Whole genome sequencing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain isolated from Sudan has led to a great deal of information, which allows the identification and characterization of some pivotal proteins. The objective of this study was to investigate the penicillin-binding proteins, PBP and PBP2a, of SO-1977 strain to have insights about their physicochemical properties and to assess and describe the interaction of some phytochemicals against them in silico. PBP and PBP2a from MRSA’s Sudan strain were found to be of great resemblance with some other strains. G246E single-nucleotide polymorphism was reported and identified in the allosteric binding site positioned in the non-penicillin-binding domain. The docked compounds demonstrated good binding energies and hydrogen bond interactions with residue Ser404 which plays crucial roles in β-lactam activity. This finding would contribute significantly to designing effective β-lactam drugs, to combat and treat β-lactam–resistant bacteria in the future.

Objectives: Infection with the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) may be either symptomatic or asymptomatic. In this study we aimed at investigating the prevalence of asymptomatic infections of leishmania in non-endemic villages in Gedaref state, Sudan. A descriptive cross-sectional study conducted during September and October 2014. Blood samples were collected for serological and molecular analysis. Sticky-traps, knockdown spray and CDC-miniature light traps were used for the collection of sandflies. Results: Ninety-Five participants were included; 52 from Abukishma, 15 Algadamblia Tirfa, 25 Abualnaja and 3 were from Algadamblia Aljabal. Females constituted 56 (58.9%) of the study participants while males were 39 (41.1%). The most frequent age group was > 40-years (54.7%). Balanites/Acacia trees were the most planted tree inside the houses; 78 (82.1%). Also, 85 (89.5%) of the participants breed animals inside the house. DAT test revealed 5 positive participants (5.2%). 4/5 DAT positive were past VL infection. PCR detected 35 (36.8%) positive participants. A total of 31/35 was considered asymptomatic infections based on PCR. Households planted Balanites/Acacia trees or breed domestic animals were found in high percentages with L. donovani PCR positive participants (60.1%, 91.4%). No statistically significant was found for VL associated risk factors and VL asymptomatic participants.

Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic parasite that causes a clinical manifestation known as toxoplasmosis. We investigated the prevalence and potential risk factors of T. gondii infection among women in Khartoum, Sudan. A sero-parasitological cross-sectional study included 100 women aging between 15 and 50 years old was conducted between January and November 2018. Serum samples were collected and investigated for the presence of anti-T. gondii immunoglobulins. Mean age of the women population included was 26.75 ± 8.25 with a range between 15 and 50 years. Sero-prevalence of T. gondii antibodies was 27% (27/100) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 18.6–36.8%. Among seropositive population 81% (22/27), 15% (4/27) and 4% (1/27) were seropositive for IgG antibodies, IgM antibodies and both antibodies respectively. Age group 21–30 years old had the highest frequency of detected IgG (10/45) and IgM (3/45). Married women had the highest frequency of detected IgG or IgM, 18/79 and 3/79, respectively. Risk factors analysis showed a total of 37/100 participants were having direct contact with cats and 66/100 have a frequent raw meat consumption, neither direct cats contact nor raw meat consumption had a statistically significant association with seropositivity to T. gondii (P value = 0.052 and 0.565, respectively).

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical global health challenge, particularly in Sudan, where the overuse and misuse of antibiotics have driven the rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens. Conventional antimicrobial strategies often fall short due to rapid resistance development and limited efficacy, highlighting the need for novel approaches. Nanotechnology offers promising alternatives, with silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) demonstrating potent broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. This study aims to develop an eco-friendly synthesis of AgNPs using Candida parapsilosis (C. parapsilosis), an untapped yeast strain isolated from Sudanese soil, to combat AMR. Results: Biosynthesis of AgNPs using C. parapsilosis was successfully confirmed through UV-Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), revealing well-defined nanoparticles. The biosynthesized AgNPs exhibited strong antibacterial activity against both ATCC reference strains and MDR clinical isolates of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with inhibition zones increasing in a concentration-dependent manner. At optimal concentrations, inhibition zones reached 29 mm for Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.aeruginosa) (ATCC 27853), while clinical isolates of Salmonella typhi (S. typhi) (24.5 ± 0.58 mm) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) (23.8 ± 0.79 mm) exhibited significant susceptibility. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) assays demonstrated potent bactericidal activity, particularly against E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) at 0.3125 mg/mL. Furthermore, AgNPs synergistically enhanced the efficacy of conventional antibiotics in a species- and antibiotic-dependent manner. The strongest synergy was observed in Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) (up to 9.84-fold with Colistin) and Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) (up to 5.11-fold with Ceftazidime), suggesting that AgNP-enhanced antibiotic efficacy varies depending on bacterial species, nanoparticle synthesis method, and antibiotic type. Conclusions: This study presents a novel and sustainable approach to tackling AMR by leveraging Sudanese yeast strains for the green synthesis of AgNPs. The findings underscore the potential of AgNPs as an effective antibacterial agent, both independently and in combination with conventional antibiotics, to combat MDR pathogens. By integrating microbiology and nanotechnology, this research offers a cost-effective and environmentally friendly solution for AMR mitigation. These findings provide a strong foundation for future clinical applications and public health interventions, particularly in resource-limited settings.