Galls have become the best model for exploring plant–gall inducer relationships, with most studies focusing on gall-inducing insects but few on gall mites. The gall mite Aceria pallida is a major pest of wolfberry, usually inducing galls on its leaves. For a better understanding of gall mite growth and development, the dynamics of the morphological and molecular characteristics and phytohormones of galls induced by A. pallida were studied by histological observation, transcriptomics and metabolomics. The galls developed from cell elongation of the epidermis and cell hyperplasia of mesophylls. The galls grew quickly, within 9 days, and the mite population increased rapidly within 18 days. The genes involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis, photosynthesis and phytohormone synthesis were significantly downregulated in galled tissues, but the genes associated with mitochondrial energy metabolism, transmembrane transport, carbohydrates and amino acid synthesis were distinctly upregulated. The levels of carbohydrates, amino acids and their derivatives, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and cytokinins (CKs), were markedly enhanced in galled tissues. Interestingly, much higher contents of IAA and CKs were detected in gall mites than in plant tissues. These results suggest that galls act as nutrient sinks and favor increased accumulation of nutrients for mites, and that gall mites may contribute IAA and CKs during gall formation.

Goji fruit fly, Neoceratitis asiatica, is a major pest on the well-known medicinal plant Lycium barbarum. Dissecting molecular mechanisms of infestation and host selection of N. asiatica will contribute to the determination of best management practices for pest fly control. Gene expression normalization by Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) requires the selection and validation of appropriate reference genes (RGs). Hence, 15 candidate RGs were selected from transcriptome data of N. asiatica. Their expression stability was evaluated with five algorithms (∆Ct, Normfinder, GeNorm, BestKeeper, and RefFinder) for sample types differing in the developmental stage, sex, tissue type, and in response to five different abiotic stresses. Our results indicated that the RGs β-Actin + GST for sex, RPL32 + EF1α for tissue type, RPS13+ EF1α for developmental stages along with odor stimulation, color induction, and starvation-refeeding stresses, EF1α + GAPDH under insecticide stress, RPS13 + RPS18 under temperature stress, respectively, were selected as the most suitable RGs for qPCR normalization. Overall, RPS18 and EF1α were the two most stable RGs in all conditions, while RPS15 and EF1β were the least stable RGs. The corresponding suitable RGs and one unstable RG were used to normalize a target odorant-binding protein OBP56a gene in male and female antennae, different tissues, and under odor stimulation. The results of OBP56a expression were consistent with transcriptome data. Our study is the first research on the most stable RGs selection in N. asiatica, which will facilitate further studies on the mechanisms of host selection and insecticide resistance in N. asiatica.

The medicinal plant Cistanche deserticola Ma (Orobanchaceae) is a holoparasitic angiosperm that takes life-essential materials from Haloxylon ammodendron (C. A. Mey.) Bunge (Amaranthaceae) roots. Although many experiments have been conducted to improve the quality of C. deserticola, little attention has been paid to the host’s influence on metabolite accumulation. In this study, transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses were performed to unveil the host’s role in C. deserticola’s metabolite accumulation, especially of phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs). The results indicate that parasitism by C. deserticola causes significant changes in H. ammodendron roots in relation to metabolites and genes linked to phenylalanine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathways, which provide precursors for PhGs. Correlation analysis of genes and metabolites further confirms that C. deserticola’s parasitism affects PhG biosynthesis in H. ammodendron roots. Then we found specific upregulation of glycosyltransferases in haustoria which connect the parasites and hosts. It was shown that C. deserticola absorbs PhG precursors from the host and that glycosylation takes place in the haustorium. We mainly discuss how the host resists C. deserticola parasitism and how this medicinal parasite exploits its unfavorable position and takes advantage of host-derived metabolites. Our study highlights that the status of the host plant affects not only the production but also the quality of Cistanches Herba, which provides a practical direction for medicinal plant cultivation.

Carposina coreana is an important pest of Cornus officinalis, distributed in China, Korea, and Japan. In recent years, its damage to C. officinalis has become increasingly serious, causing enormous economic losses in China. This study and prediction of current and future suitable habitats for C. coreana in China can provide an important reference for the monitoring, early warning, prevention, and control of the pest. In this study, the potential distributions of C. coreana in China under current climate and future climate models were predicted using the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model with ArcGIS software. The distribution point data of C. coreana were screened using the buffer screening method. Nineteen environmental variables were screened using the knife-cut method and variable correlation analysis. The parameters of the MaxEnt model were optimized using the kuenm package in R software. The MaxEnt model, combined with key environmental variables, was used to predict the distribution range of the suitable area for C. coreana under the current (1971–2000) and four future scenarios. The buffer screening method screened data from 41 distribution points that could be used for modeling. The main factors affecting the distribution of C. coreana were precipitation in the driest month (Bio14), precipitation in the warmest quarter (Bio18), precipitation in the coldest quarter (Bio19), the standard deviation of seasonal variation of temperature (Bio4), minimum temperature in the coldest month (Bio6), and average temperature in the coldest quarter (Bio11). The feature class (FC) after the kuenm package optimization was a Q-quadratic T-threshold combination, and the regularization multiplier (RM) was 0.8. The suitable areas for C. coreana under the current climate model were mainly distributed in central China, and the highly suitable areas were distributed in southern Shaanxi, southwestern Henan, and northwestern Hubei. The lowest temperature in the coldest month (Bio6), the average temperature in the coldest quarter (Bio11), and the precipitation in the warmest quarter (Bio18) all had good predictive ability. In future climate scenarios, the boundary of the suitable area for C. coreana in China is expected to shift northward, and thus, most of the future climate scenarios would shift northward.

Insecticide resistance has long been a problem in crop pest control. Bactericera gobica is a major pest on the well-known medicinal plants Lycium barbarum L. Investigating insecticide resistance mechanisms of B. gobica will help to identify pesticide reduction strategies to control the pest. Gene expression normalization by RT-qPCR requires the selection and validation of appropriate reference genes (RGs). Here, 15 candidate RGs were selected from transcriptome data of B. gobica. Their expression stability was evaluated with five algorithms (Delta Ct, GeNorm, Normfinder, BestKeeper and RefFinder) for sample types differing in response to five insecticide stresses and in four other experimental conditions. Our results indicated that the RGs RPL10 + RPS15 for Imidacloprid and Abamectin; RPL10 + AK for Thiamethoxam; RPL32 + RPL10 for λ-cyhalothrin; RPL10 + RPL8 for Matrine; and EF2 + RPL32 under different insecticide stresses were the most suitable RGs for RT-qPCR normalization. EF1α + RPL8, EF1α + β-actin, β-actin + EF2 and β-actin + RPS15 were the optimal combination of RGs under odor stimulation, temperature, developmental stages and both sexes, respectively. Overall, EF2 and RPL8 were the two most stable RGs in all conditions, while α-TUB and RPL32 were the least stable RGs. The corresponding suitable RGs and one unstable RG were used to normalize a target cytochrome P450 CYP6a1 gene between adult and nymph stages and under imidacloprid stress. The results of CYP6a1 expression were consistent with transcriptome data. This study is the first research on the most stable RG selection in B. gobica nymphs exposed to different insecticides, which will contribute to further research on insecticide resistance mechanisms in B. gobica.