Fermented beverages, including wine, can accumulate high concentrations of biogenic amines (BAs), which can pose potential health risks. BAs are produced by various yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) during winemaking. LAB are the main contributors to the formation of histamine and tyramine, the most toxic and food safety relevant biogenic amines. Numerous factors, ranging from agricultural and oenological practices to sanitation conditions, can contribute to the formation of BAs in wines. Moreover, organic and biodynamic wines impose limitations on the use of common food additives employed to control the proliferation of native and spoilage microorganisms during vinification and storage. To mitigate histamine production, commercial starter cultures incapable of synthesising histamine have been effectively utilised to reduce wine histamine content. Alternative fermentative microorganisms are currently under investigation to enhance the safety, quality, and typicity of wines, including indigenous LAB, non-Saccharomyces yeasts, and BAs degrading strains. Furthermore, exploration of extracts from BAs-degrading microorganisms and their purified enzymes has been undertaken to reduce BAs levels in wines. This review highlights microbial contributors to BAs in wines, factors affecting their growth and BA production, and alternative microorganisms that can degrade or avoid BAs. The aim is to lessen reliance on additives, providing consumers with safer wine choices.

1. IntroductionThe durability, versatility, and low production cost of conventional plastics have made them indispensable across numerous global industries. However, most of these plastics are derived from fossil fuels, contributing to a growing environmental crisis that includes resource depletion and extensive pollution [1,2]. This challenge is intensifying rapidly, with global plastic production now exceeding 460 million tons annually and projected to potentially triple by 2050 [3]. Consequently, plastic pollution has become a priority concern for major international organizations, including the United Nations, the World Economic Forum, the World Health Organization, and the European Union [2].Most monomers used to produce plastics, such as ethylene and propylene, are derived from fossil hydrocarbons, and the majority of commonly used plastics are not biodegradable. As a result, instead of decomposing, they accumulate in landfills and natural environments, including oceans basins, freshwater systems, and terrestrial habitats [3,4]. Currently, the only permanent methods for eliminating plastic waste involve destructive thermal treatments, such as combustion or pyrolysis. Yet, the lifecycle of most plastic remains linear: approximately 79% of all plastics produced have been landfilled or released into the environment, 12% incinerated and only 9% recycled [3].Packaging accounts for the largest source of global plastic waste and typically has the shortest useful lifespan among industrial plastic applications [2]. Within a circular economy framework, plastics would be manufactured from renewable or recycled materials. Biodegradable plastics have emerged as a promising alternative, designed to break down more readily through natural processes and mitigate long-term environmental accumulation. Among these, starch-based materials have attracted significant interest due to their low cost, renewability, excellent film-forming properties, biocompatibility, and inherent biodegradability [5]. Starch-based bioplastics are already employed in disposable tableware, edible coatings, packaging materials, and other industrial applications [6]. Continued development of starch-based blends and composites is therefore considered a key strategy for reducing global dependence on petrochemical plastics.The circular economy also emphasizes retaining biological materials in use for as long as possible and recovering valuable compounds from agricultural residues, thereby reducing reliance on virgin resources and minimizing pollution [7]. Valorization of byproducts, which involves transforming materials previously regarded waste into valuable secondary raw materials, is central to this approach [8]. By valorizing agricultural and food processing residues, it is possible to reduce disposal costs, decrease environmental impacts, and create new revenue streams [7,9].In this context, biodegradable starch-based films were produced using starch recovered from spoiled chestnuts. Previous research has shown that this starch possesses functional properties suitable for use in the food industry [10]. Building upon this foundation, the present study investigates the suitability of chestnut byproduct starch for developing biodegradable films for packaging applications. The main objective of this study was to produce starch-based films from chestnut-derived starch and evaluate their structural characteristics, mechanical performance, and hydrophobic properties. This assessment aimed to determine the potential of chestnut starch as a sustainable and functional raw material for biodegradable packaging solutions.

Global chestnut production is rising. However, the Portuguese chestnut industry still experiences annual post-harvest losses, largely due to microbial spoilage. Recovering high-value starch from spoiled chestnuts offers a promising strategy to reduce waste and increase economic returns. Yet, starch extracted from spoiled kernels is typically dark brown, limiting its industrial applications. This study aimed to enhance the sustainability of the chestnut sector by converting industrial byproducts into useful ingredients. We evaluated whether hypochlorite-mediated oxidative extraction at pHs around 8 and 12 could produce starch with functional properties suitable for industrial applications. Both native and bleached starches showed similar lightness (L* 84–91), though a slight yellow hue remained (ΔE* 12–19). The degree of crystallinity was higher in bleached starches (13–16%) while preserving the characteristic C_B-type crystalline pattern of native chestnut starch. The degree of oxidation was 0.88% and 0.43% for bleached starches isolated at pHs 8 and 12, respectively. Starch bleached at pH 8 exhibited moderate viscosity (breakdown 0.103) and greater swelling capacity at 50 °C than corn starch. In contrast, extraction under alkaline conditions markedly reduced gelatinization and retrogradation performance. Therefore, oxidative extraction at middle pH proved to be the most effective method for recovering functional starch from spoiled chestnuts.