In plants, light quality plays significant roles in photomorphogenesis and photosynthesis. Efficient in vitro plant propagation techniques involve tailoring of various environmental cues and culture media according to the plant species. Plant tissue culture consists of several applications in scientific research, agriculture, biotechnology, and commercial industrial purposes. Utilization of light to enhance the quality of the in vitro raised plants have been evidenced by numerous researchers in plant tissue culture. The advent of light‐emitting diode‐ (LED‐) based artificial lighting systems in plant tissue culture for micropropagation has enhanced callus induction, shoot and root organogenesis, and acclimatization of in vitro propagated plants. Plants tend to perceive the light spectra present in the photosynthetically active region (PAR) ranging from 400 to 700 nm; this includes blue and red light wavelengths. Although the influence of spectral quality is being investigated in diverse plant species, particularly, its importance in in vitro propagated horticultural crops is gaining notable interest among researchers. In recent days, the application of LEDs provides better amenability according to the plant species of interest for efficient plant regeneration. Considering the growing necessity and emerging applications of LED supplemental lights for propagation of plants in in vitro, the present review summarizes the outcomes of various research studies dealing with LEDs in plant tissue culture. Moreover, the present endeavor has provided a comprehensive overview on the effects of LEDs in the morphogenesis of plants cultured in vitro.

To keep sustainable development in a digital society, it is essential for young people to possess certain digital skills. Levels of the digital skills of Chinese undergraduates take a certain role in the process of educational digitalization promoted by the Chinese government, becoming an important concern for Chinese universities and policymakers. However, few valid and reliable instruments are available for the assessment of the digital skills of undergraduates in China. Thus, developing, and testing the reliability and validity of a questionnaire to measure the digital skills of Chinese undergraduates are necessary. Based on previous literature and situations in the Chinese educational context, this study developed and validated a questionnaire to assess the digital skills of Chinese undergraduates. Through factor analysis approaches, the internal factor structure of the questionnaire was explored, and its reliability and validity were verified. Development and validation of a questionnaire, in which 6 factors were extracted, were described: access to and management of digital content, use of digital means, communication of digital content, creation of digital content, digital empathy, and digital safety. The questionnaire was applied to the first sample of 222 undergraduates and the second sample of 231 undergraduates selected randomly from a university located in the east of China. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) through SPSS 26.0 with the first sample was used to determine the internal factor structure of the whole questionnaire, which showed the expected congruency between items and dimensions. Then a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) through Mplus 8.3 with the second sample was utilized to check model-data fit of the questionnaire, which showed a good fit between them. Convergent validity and discriminant validity of the questionnaire were also verified. The resulting questionnaire emerged as a useful tool for carrying out nationwide studies on digital skills in higher education generally or in different disciplines specifically in China in the future.

Previous research has indicated that writing performance of foreign/second language (L2) learners is influenced by their utilization of self-regulated writing strategies. Yet, the relationship between various self-regulated strategies and individual characteristics, such as writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty, has not been sufficiently examined. To bridge this gap, this study classified self-regulated writing strategies into four distinct types: cognitive, metacognitive, social behavioral, and motivational. These types were combined with L2 learners’ writing anxiety and writing difficulty to form conceptual models to predict high or low writing performance. Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to gain a detailed understanding of the causal intricacies of writing performance. Data was collected from a sample of 94 students attending a university in eastern China. fsQCA revealed a variety of configurations associated with EFL writing performance, with six of them leading to high performance and four to low performance. These configurations highlight the complex causal relationship between students’ use of self-regulated writing strategies and their writing performance, while considering their writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty. The study provided theoretical and practical implications for L2 teachers and educators who wish to enhance L2 learners’ writing performance.

In foreign/second language (L2) education, individual difference factors such as motivation, anxiety, and mindset play important roles in influencing willingness to communicate in L2 (L2WTC). However, there is a gap in the understanding of how the two components of L2 motivational self system—ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self—affect L2WTC among Chinese middle school students. Moreover, the roles of communication anxiety and growth language mindset as mediators in these relationships have not been fully explored. Hence, this study aimed to explore the relationships between ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, communication anxiety, growth language mindset, and L2WTC. Data were collected from 847 students across four Chinese middle schools and analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results revealed that ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self were directly and positively associated with L2WTC, while communication anxiety and growth language mindset were directly and negatively related to L2WTC. Additionally, ideal L2 self was found to positively predict communication anxiety, whereas ought-to L2 self negatively influenced it. Furthermore, both ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self positively predicted growth language mindset. Communication anxiety and growth language mindset mediated the relationships between ideal L2 self and L2WTC, and between ought-to L2 self and L2WTC. Notably, three mediating paths demonstrated suppression effects. The findings of this study carry pedagogical implications for the field of L2 teaching and learning.

The influence of communication anxiety on English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) is well-documented. However, the role of teachers, including task design, teacher support, and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) integration on L2 WTC in the context of digital transformation of education remains underexplored. This study investigates how these teacher-related factors affect learners' L2 WTC by considering the mediating effect of communication anxiety. An online survey was administered to 620 EFL learners from three universities in eastern China, yielding 607 valid responses. Structural Equation Modeling was applied for data analysis. Key findings reveal that: task design significantly influences both communication anxiety and learners' L2 WTC. Interestingly, while the integration of ICT significantly mitigates communication anxiety, it does not translate into an enhanced L2 WTC. Furthermore, teacher support, despite its acknowledged importance, does not significantly alter the levels of communication anxiety or L2 WTC among learners. This null effect warrants further exploration and suggests that the influence of teacher support may be more nuanced than previously thought. Most notably, communication anxiety mediates the relationship between task design and ICT use with L2 WTC, emphasizing the centrality of affective factors in language acquisition and highlights the need to address communication anxiety as a key component in the design of language learning interventions. This study contributes valuable knowledge to the field of language learning and instruction, offering practical implications for educators and learners.