Trichothecene mycotoxins are sesquiterpenoid compounds primarily produced by fungi in taxonomical genera such as Fusarium, Myrothecium, Stachybotrys, Trichothecium, and others, under specific climatic conditions on a worldwide basis. Fusarium mold is a major plant pathogen and produces a number of trichothecene mycotoxins including deoxynivalenol (or vomitoxin), nivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, and T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin. Monogastrics are sensitive to vomitoxin, while poultry and ruminants appear to be less sensitive to some trichothecenes through microbial metabolism of trichothecenes in the gastrointestinal tract. Trichothecene mycotoxins occur worldwide however both total concentrations and the particular mix of toxins present vary with environmental conditions. Proper agricultural practices such as avoiding late harvests, removing overwintered stubble from fields, and avoiding a corn/wheat rotation that favors Fusarium growth in residue can reduce trichothecene contamination of grains. Due to the vague nature of toxic effects attributed to low concentrations of trichothecenes, a solid link between low level exposure and a specific trichothecene is difficult to establish. Multiple factors, such as nutrition, management, and environmental conditions impact animal health and need to be evaluated with the knowledge of the mycotoxin and concentrations known to cause adverse health effects. Future research evaluating the impact of low-level exposure on livestock may clarify the potential impact on immunity. Trichothecenes are rapidly excreted from animals, and residues in edible tissues, milk, or eggs are likely negligible. In chronic exposures to trichothecenes, once the contaminated feed is removed and exposure stopped, animals generally have an excellent prognosis for recovery. This review shows the occurrence of trichothecenes in food and feed in 2011–2020 and their toxic effects and provides a summary of the discussions on the potential public health concerns specifically related to trichothecenes residues in foods associated with the exposure of farm animals to mycotoxin-contaminated feeds and impact to human health. Moreover, the article discusses the methods of their detection.

This study aimed to evaluate the fatty acid composition, including the contents, of conjugated linoleic acid cis9trans11 C18:2 (CLA) and trans C18:1 and C18:2 isomers in hard cow, sheep, and goat cheeses found on the Polish market and to compare lipid quality indices in these cheeses. The gas chromatography method was used to determine the fatty acid profile. The study demonstrated various contents of cis9trans 11 C18:2 (CLA), trans C18:1, and C18:2 isomers and the values of lipid quality indices in the cheeses. Sheep and goat cheeses were richer sources of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) (14.73 ± 2.55% and 14.80 ± 2.80%, respectively) than the cow cheeses (9.38 ± 0.87%). The cow cheeses had a significantly higher (p < 0.05) content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), the lowest n-6/n-3 ratio, and the highest content of fatty acids, inducing a desirable dietary effect in humans (DFA) compared to the sheep and goat cheeses. Significantly higher (p < 0.05) contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were found in sheep cheeses. Goat cheeses had the highest n-3 PUFA content and the lowest values of the thrombogenicity index (TI) (2.67 ± 0.44) compared to the sheep and cow cheeses (3.14 ± 0.29 and 3.13 ± 0.13, respectively). The cow, sheep, and goat cheeses were characterized by similar values of the hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic (H/H) ratio. Sheep cheeses had the highest levels of cis9trans11 C18:2 (CLA) and the highest total content of trans C18:1 and trans C18:2 isomers. The research showed that sheep, cow, and goat cheeses offered various health benefits. The differences in fatty acid composition and the different values of the lipid quality indices found in the cheeses may be due to differences in both the composition of milk used to produce them and the cheese-making technology. Studies conducted by many authors have indicated that the feeding system of the ruminants has a significant impact on the quality and chemical composition of milk, as well as its applicability for cheese production.

Mercury content and fatty acids in muscles of Perca fluviatilis L. (European perch), Leuciscus idus L. (ide), Cyprinus carpio L. (European or common carp), Oncorhynchus mykiss Walb. (rainbow trout), Platichthys flesus L. (European flounder). and Clupea harengus L. (bream) from the Polish market were investigated. The total mercury was processed with AAS. The fatty acids were analyzed by gas chromatography. The concentration of mercury in muscles varied from 0.006 to 0.138 mg/kg and decreased as follows: perch ≈ ide > flounder > herring ≈ bream ≈ rainbow trout > carp (p ≤ 0.05). There were only significant positive correlations between body weight and mercury content in muscle tissue of carp (r = 0.878), flounder (r = 0.925) and herring (r = 0.982) (p ≤ 0.05). The atherogenic index (AI), thrombogenicity index (TI) and flesh-lipid quality index (FLQ) were calculated as follows 0.33–0.70 (IA), 0.16–0.31 (IT) and 13.01–33.22 (FLQ). Hypocholesterolemic (OFA) and hypercholesterolemic fatty acids (DFA) in muscles of fish ranged from 18.26 to 23.01 and from 73.91 to 78.46, respectively. In most cases, there were not significant correlations between size (body weight and total length) and fatty acids in the muscles of the examined fish (p > 0.05). The Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) values were below 1, which shows that there is no non-carcinogenic health risk to the consumer by consuming the examined fish.

The objectives of study were to determine heavy metals content (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe and Hg) and fatty acids in selected organs of roach, Rutilus rutilus (L.); bream, Abramis brama (L.); pike, Esox lucius (L.); Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis (L.) collected from reservoirs of Warmia and Mazury region (northeastern Poland). Heavy metals were determined with atomic absorption spectrometry AAS. The fatty acids were analyzed using gas chromatography. In a few cases, differences in the content of heavy metals and fatty acids were not significant between species. The muscles of fish characterized significantly higher values of mercury than other organs (p ≤ 0.05), except for bream. The reverse regularity was observed in the case of content of Cu, Zn, Mn and Fe. Fatty acids having a desirable dietary effect in humans (DFA-Hypocholesterolaemic fatty acids) (74.00–74.84) were more than OFA (hypercholesterolaemic fatty acids), i.e., those undesirable (24.03–24.79). The lipid quality indexes AI (index of atherogenicity) (0.40–0.44) and TI (index of thrombogenicity) (0.18–0.24) in muscles of fish were low, which means that the meat of the fish may be recommended for human health. THQ (target hazard quotient) and HI (hazard index) as individual foodstuff were below 1, whereas HI for a specific receptor/pathway combination exceeded 1. This may suggest that eating meat from a given species is safe from a health point of view.

This study aimed to analyze the composition of fatty acids, with particular emphasis on the content of cis9trans11 C18:2 (CLA) acid, the content of minerals, and lipid quality indices in raw milk, pasteurized milk, and in yogurts produced with selected starter cultures enriched with Bifidobacterium bifidum. The GC-FID method was used to determine the fatty acid composition of those dairy products. To analyze the contents of microelements (copper, manganese, iron, and zinc) and macroelements (magnesium, calcium) flame atomic absorption spectrometry was used. The content of phosphorus was determined with the usage of the colorimetric method and the contents of sodium and potassium with emission method. Data analysis showed that such technologies as milk pasteurization and milk fermentation had a significant impact on the fatty acid profile and contents of micro- and macroelements. The lipid quality indices: atherogenicity index (AI), index thrombogenicity (TI), hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic index (H/H), and (n − 6)/(n − 3) ratio, were at similar levels in raw and pasteurized milk and yogurts produced. Starter culture type affected the content of cis-9, trans-11 CLA C18:2 acid in yogurts. Out of the starter cultures applied in the study, only the FD-DVS YC-X16 Yo-Flex starter culture with BB-12 caused a significant (p < 0.05) increase in CLA content. The CLA content of the yogurts produced using this starter culture was 2.67 mg/g fat. In raw milk, pasteurized milk, and the second batch of yogurts, the content of cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 acid was significantly lower and reached 2.26 mg/g fat, 2.17 mg/g fat, and 2.30 mg/g fat, respectively. The study indicated that, when it comes to being a source of minerals, yogurts were better than milk. Yogurts were also characterized by significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of all micro- and macroelements taken into account in this study than the raw milk used to produce them.

The assessment of fatty acid composition, including the content of conjugated linoleic acid cis9trans11 C18:2 (CLA) and trans C18:1 and C18:2 isomers in fat extracted from selected high-fat dairy products commonly available to consumers in retail sale on the Polish market, and a comparison of their indicators as to the quality of lipids was the aim of the study. The experimental materials were hard cheeses, white-mold cheeses, blue-veined cheeses, and butters. The conducted study demonstrated that various contents of groups of fatty acids and the values of lipid quality indices were found in the tested products. Butters turned out to be richer sources of short-chain, branched-chain, and odd-chain fatty acids. The fat extracted from butters and white-mold cheeses had a significantly higher (p < 0.05) content of n-3 fatty acids. Lower values of the n-6/n-3 ratio were determined in the fat extracted from butters and white-mold cheeses. The highest values of the thrombogenicity index (TI) were found in fat extracted from hard cheeses. Significantly lower values (p < 0.05) of the atherogenicity index (AI) and values of the H/H ratio were found in fat from mold cheeses. Fat from butters and white-mold cheeses had a significantly higher (p < 0.05) content of CLA and total content of trans C18:1.