Bee bread is a product of honeybees, which collect and ferment pollen, that contains highly nutritious and easily digestible active substances. However, its nutritional composition varies significantly with fermentation strains and seasonal changes. To unveil the patterns of microbial community and nutritional component changes in bee bread across seasons, we employed high-throughput techniques to assess the diversity of bacteria and fungi in bee bread. The results indicated that the compositions of bacteria and fungi in bee bread undergo significant seasonal variation, with noticeable changes in the microbial diversity of bee bread from different bee species. Subsequently, metabolomic analysis revealed high activity of glycerophospholipid metabolism in bee bread. Furthermore, our analysis identifaied noteworthy differences in nutritional components, including pH values, sugar content, and free amino acid levels, in bee bread across different seasons.

The glands of bees are responsible for generating and secreting various biologically active substances that significantly impact bee physiological health and adaptability. This study aimed to investigate the effects of adding citric acid (CA) to bee feed on gland development and royal jelly quality. By formulating feed with varying proportions of CA, evaluation was undertaken of pollen feeding by honeybees under laboratory conditions, along with the impact of CA on the development of major glands, to determine suitable addition proportions. Further optimization of the CA proportion involved feeding colonies and evaluating royal jelly production and quality. The results indicated that feed containing 0.75% CA significantly extended the lifespan of bees and increased their pollen consumption. Gland development in bees showed a positive correlation with CA addition within the range of 0.25% to 0.75%, especially at 0.50% and 0.75%, which notably accelerated the development of mandibular, hypopharyngeal, and cephalic salivary glands, with active proliferation and differentiation of glandular cells and maintenance of normal gland size and morphology. CA added to feed stimulated vigorous secretion of wax glands in worker bees, resulting in prolific wax construction. Colonies consuming feed containing 0.50% CA produced royal jelly with significantly reduced moisture and total sugar content and increased levels of 10-HDA, total phenolic acids, total proteins, and acidity. These findings demonstrate that CA consumption significantly prolongs bee lifespan, increases consumption, promotes gland development, and enhances royal jelly quality. This research provides theoretical guidance for beekeeping practices and feed development, contributing to the sustainable advancement of apiculture.

Honey robbing, which typically occurs during times of food scarcity, is a perilous foraging strategy for bee colonies and presents a formidable challenge in the realm of beekeeping. This article provides a comprehensive and multifaceted exploration of honey robbing, including the morphology, behavioral traits, timing, and scope of this phenomenon. This exploration elucidates the specific manifestations of honey robbing, offering readers a deeper understanding of its various facets. Next, this article investigates the root causes of honey robbing by examining both abiotic and biotic factors. The resulting harms are outlined, and corresponding preventive and control measures are suggested. Finally, the article succinctly summarizes the current obstacles in research related to honey robbing and outlines promising avenues for future exploration. The objective of this study was to elucidate the occurrence mechanism of honey robbing, ultimately aiming to contribute to the sustainable growth of the beekeeping industry.

Honey robbing, as an extreme adaptive response of honey bee colonies to resource scarcity, poses devastating threats to apiaries, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. We compared morphological traits and survival rates between robber bees and normal foragers and conducted proteomic sequencing of bee head samples. The results demonstrated that robber bees exhibited darker tergite coloration and significantly shortened lifespan. Proteomic analysis revealed that the darker coloration was primarily attributed to enhanced cuticular melanin deposition mediated by upregulated laccase-5, while the shortened lifespan mainly resulted from oxidative stress and immune suppression: the downregulation of heat shock protein 75 kDa and glutathione transferase weakened antioxidant capacity, and despite compensatory upregulation of the cytochrome P450 enzyme system, flavin-containing monooxygenases and other enzymes, oxidative damage continued to accumulate. Concurrently, downregulation of Defense protein 3 and C-type lectin 5 caused immune deficiency in robber bees. The results also showed metabolic and protein synthesis reprogramming in robber bees, specifically manifested by upregulated key enzymes in nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism, the pentose phosphate pathway, and nucleotide metabolism, along with activation of protein synthesis-transport-export systems. We found that robber bees employ a “metabolic-synthetic co-enhancement” physiological strategy to boost short-term foraging efficiency, but this strategy simultaneously induces oxidative damage and immune suppression, ultimately shortening their lifespan. This study provides the first proteomic evidence revealing the physiological trade-offs underlying this behavior at the molecular level, offering novel insights into the physiological costs of behavioral adaptation in animals.