We analyze the transverse momentum ($p_T$) spectra of ${\pi }^{+}$, ${\pi }^{-}$, $K^{+}$, $K^{-}$, p, $\overline{p}$, $\Lambda$, $\overline{\Lambda }$, $\Xi$, $\overline{\Xi }$, ${\Omega }^{-}$, ${\overline{\Omega }}^{+}$ or ${\Omega }^{-}+{\overline{\Omega }}^{+}$ in different centrality intervals in gold–gold (Au–Au) and lead–lead (Pb–Pb) symmetric collisions at 200 GeV and 2.76 TeV, respectively, by Tsallis–Pareto-type function. Proton–proton collisions at the same centre of mass energies are also analyzed for these particles to compare the results obtained from these systems. The present work extracts the effective temperature T, non-extensivity parameter $\left(q\right)$, the mean transverse momentum spectra ($⟨p_T⟩$), the multiplicity parameter ($N_0$), kinetic freeze-out temperature ($T_0$) and transverse flow velocity (${\beta }_T$). We reported a plateau structure of $p_T$, T, $T_0$, ${\beta }_T$, $p_T$ and q in central collisions. Beyond the plateau region, the excitation function of all the above parameters decreases towards the periphery, except q, which has a reverse trend. The multiplicity parameter is also extracted, which is found to be decreasing towards the periphery from the central collisions. In addition, we observed that the excitation function of pp collisions is nearly the same to that of the most peripheral symmetric nucleus–nucleus collisions at the same colliding energy. Throughout the analyses, the same multiplicity parameters for particles and their antiparticles have been reported, which show the symmetric production of particles and their antiparticles.

Strange hadron transverse momentum spectra are analyzed in symmetric $pp$ and $PbPb$ and asymmetric $pPb$ collision systems for their dependence on rapidity and event charged-particle multiplicity. The thermodynamically consistent Tsallis models with and without flow velocity are used to reproduce the experimental data, extracting the freeze-out parameters to gain insights into the underlying physics of the collision processes by looking into the parameters change with different multiplicities, particle types, and collision geometries. We found that with an increase in the event multiplicity, the average transverse flow velocity, effective, and kinetic freezeout temperatures increase, with heavier strange particle species exhibiting a more significant increase. The value of the non-extensivity parameter decreases with an increase in the multiplicity of the particles. For heavier particles, larger $T_{eff}$ and $T_0$ and smaller q have been observed, confirming the quick thermalization and equilibrium for massive particles. Furthermore, the differences in parameter values for particle species are more significant in $pp$ and $pPb$ collisions than in $PbPb$ collisions. In addition, in symmetric $pp$ and $PbPb$ collisions, parameter values ($q,T_0,{\beta }_T$) show more significant shifts for heavier particles compared to the lighter ones. In contrast, in asymmetric $pPb$ collisions, both heavier and lighter particles display uniform linear progression.

This article focuses on the study of strange hadrons ( K S 0 , Λ , Λ ̅ , Ξ + , Ξ − ) at s = 0.2 TeV, recorded by STAR at RHIC, and at s = 0.9 TeV, 5.02 TeV and 7 TeV, recorded by CMS at LHC, in pp collision in the rapidity range from 0 to 2. The p_T distributions of these strange particles have been processed using two statistical models, the Tsallis and the modified Hagedorn model. Both models fit the experimental data well. We extracted different freezeout parameters from the fit procedure using the abovementioned functions. We found that with increasing the collision energy, the effective temperature (T), in the case of the Tsallis model, and kinetic/thermal freeze-out temperature (_T0) and transverse flow velocity (β _T), in the case of the modified Hagedorn model, increase because of greater energy transfer among the participants at higher colliding energies. Both T and T₀ are observed to increase with the increase in the rest masses of the outgoing particles revealing the multi-freeze-out scenario. Furthermore, the multiplicity parameter (N₀) decreases with the increase in the particle mass, confirming the mass differential freeze-out scenario. An inverse relationship between the non-extensivity parameter (q) and the masses of the produced particles has been noticed. Similarly, an inverse correlation between q and T has been found. For lighter particles, smaller T and greater q mean that they decouple from the system later and attain equilibrium slowly compared to heavier ones. In addition, a positive correlation between β _T and T₀ is noticed, which agrees with the literature.

This study investigates the transverse momentum ( ) distributions of , , p ( ), , and Λ in various centrality classes of Pb-Pb collisions at TeV. The experimental spectra were analyzed using the Tsallis non-extensive distribution, from which the effective temperature ( T ), non-extensive parameter ( q ), and mean transverse momentum ( ) were extracted for each particle species and centrality bin. To disentangle thermal and collective effects, the mean kinetic freeze-out temperature ( ) was obtained from the intercept of the T versus mass relation, and the average transverse flow velocity ( ) was extracted from the slope of versus mean moving mass for pions, kaons, and protons. The results show that T increases and q decreases with centrality, indicating a hotter and more equilibrated system in central collisions. A clear mass dependence of T supports the presence of a multi-freeze-out scenario, with heavier particles decoupling earlier. Both and arise from peripheral to mid-central collisions before saturating toward central events, which may suggest the onset of collective behavior or changes in freeze-out dynamics. These observations provide new insights into the thermal and dynamical properties of the medium created in heavy-ion collisions at the LHC.

In this study, we systematically investigate the dynamics of various hadrons namely π ⁺, π ⁻, K ⁺, K ⁻, p, p ¯ , Λ, Λ ¯ , Ξ⁻ and Ξ ¯ + produced in central Au–Au collisions. We analyze data of AGS and RHIC, which span a broad range of collision energies, ranging from s NN = 1.9 to 200 GeV. To analyze the transverse momentum (p _T ) and transverse mass (m _T ) distributions, we employ a two-component standard distribution function, achieving a very good representation of the experimental data across these energy regimes. We extract key thermodynamic parameters, including the effective temperature T, the mean transverse momentum 〈p _T 〉, and the initial temperature T _i , and analyze their dependence on the values of collision energy and particle mass. Our findings reveal a distinct transition behaviour around s NN = 19.6 GeV . Below s NN = 19.6 GeV , the values of T, 〈p _T 〉, and T _i increase monotonically for all hadrons due to higher energy transfer into the system. Above this energy threshold, these extracted parameters plateau, suggesting that the additional energy is utilized as latent heat for phase transition rather than increasing the system’s temperature. These observations delineate two distinct regions: a hadron-dominated region at lower energies and a parton-dominated region at higher energies, each potentially indicative of different phases of matter, with the latter possibly signalling the onset of a quark–gluon plasma. The study thus provides critical insights into the complex interplay of thermodynamics, phase transitions, and particle interactions in high-energy Au–Au collisions.