Artisanal and Small-scale river sand mining is one of the upcoming activities associated with the environmental crisis concerning the water ecosystem. However, the determination of the duration in which illegal sand mining has occurred, and the future prediction on the extent of river sand mining is not well-established in most of the world. This study aimed to assess the extent of river sand mining activities across some of the catchments in Limpopo province, South Africa and understand the sustainable extraction of sand resources. This was followed by the determination of when sand mining activities commenced in each of the individual catchments. Thus, remote sensing was applied to predict the extent of river sand mining from the year 1992 to 2022, and statistical prediction models were utilised to predict the extent of sand mining for the next 10 years. The results of the study suggest that most of the catchments started to experience illegal sand mining activities from the year 1992, though the extraction was relatively low. Equally, a decrease in vegetation coverage across the river system has been evidenced, which also suggests that the extraction of sand and gravel has been elevated from the year 2010. In terms of the prediction model, the Turfloop River system was predicted to experience a large extraction ratio in the coming 10 years, with about 92.415 ha of land expected to be affected. Meanwhile, the Molototsi River system was denoted to be the least affected river system, with a reduced extraction ratio of about 6.57 ha expected in the next 10 years’ time.

This paper combines empirical observations, kinematic analysis, and numerical simulation to investigate slope failure susceptibility, with practical implications for regional infrastructure projects. Six slopes along the R37 road were analyzed to assess the impact of strata orientation and water presence on slope stability. The results indicate that various factors interact to destabilize the mechanical integrity of both rock and soil materials. Dry slopes were found to be less vulnerable to failure, although geological conditions remained influential. Numerical modeling using FLACSlope (version 8.1) revealed that the factor of safety (FoS) decreases as the water presence increases, highlighting the critical need for effective drainage solutions. Kinematic analysis, incorporating DIPS modeling and toppling charts, identified toppling as the most likely failure mode, with a 90% susceptibility rate, followed by planar and wedge failures at 6% and less than 5%, respectively. These findings are validated by the observed slope conditions and empirical data. Planar failures were often remnants of both sliding and toppling failures. Given the significant risk posed to road infrastructure, particularly where FoS hovers just above the stability threshold, this study emphasizes the importance of proactive, long-term slope monitoring and early mitigation strategies to prevent catastrophic failures. The results can guide infrastructure design and maintenance, ensuring safer and more resilient roadways in regions prone to slope instability. Nonetheless, the use of sophisticated slope stability modeling techniques is recommended for a thorough understanding of the mechanical dynamics of the slope material, and for catering to the shortfalls of the techniques applied in this paper.

Illegal river sand mining in regions like the Limpopo Province poses severe threats to ecosystems and communities. Nevertheless, the community's perspectives concerning these effects have not been determined. Thus, the aim of the investigation was to assess community perceptions regarding the environmental consequences linked to river sand mining in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study employed mixed methods to acquire the primary data. The quantitative data were acquired using questionnaires; meanwhile, the qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews from various respondents. The demographic profile of the respondents indicated a predominantly male population, with a majority lacking formal qualifications. Additionally, the prevalence of very high unemployment rates in the area seemed to influence participation in the activity. Consequently, some perceived it as an economic opportunity to generate income for their sustenance. It has been found that as developments increase, the demand for river sand increases as well, leading to a high extraction rate of sand. Lastly, the extraction of the resources was found to be un-regulated or controlled; therefore, it is concluded that unregulated extraction of these resources resulted in a high extraction rate and environmental crises such as un-rehabilitated pits, water pollution, land pollution, among others. It is therefore recommended that collaborative efforts among relevant authorities to enforce stringent regulations and penalties. Equally vital are public awareness campaigns, which can play a pivotal role in educating communities about the environmental repercussions of illegal sand mining.

This study accentuates the significant contribution of small-scale mining (SM) to stimulating economic development, providing employment, and developing infrastructure. Nevertheless, the continuing premature shutdown of SM bodes ill for economic recovery. To get an idea of these underlying reasons, a systematic review of all articles published in the scientific literature was calculated using Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The application of Boolean operators guided the collection of key insights utilising the PRISMA protocol. Tools like ggplot2 (for graphs) and word clouds in RStudio helped us recognise patterns. Analysis was facilitated with ggplot2, showing boxplots and bar charts of quantitative variables between quarry types and geographical regions. At the same time, word clouds also gave us insights into the most common expressions and, thus, the main reasons behind quarry closures. Further, the research revealed a lack of subsurface geological data, which is needed to estimate mineral resources in SM accurately. It also identified a relation with under-exploration leading to early abandonment which in turn increases the chance of misclassification of mineral reserves. Consequently, the study advocates for further research to devise practical strategies for managing mineral resources effectively in small-scale mining operations.

Sustainable small-scale mining (SSM) development presents both challenges and opportunities for stone resource economies. Having been characterised by informality, a lack of technology, and environmental degradation, SSM remains a significant global producer of geological raw materials, including stone resources. However, it often struggles with the appraisal of resources and the classification of reserves. Conventional geological methods, although effective, are not being considered. This study examined the traditional estimation of the contribution of stone techniques to sustainability and resource estimation in small-scale industries. Babanana Greyfield at Meadowbank Farm was selected as a case study area due to its accessibility and the availability of borehole information. Rotary drilling, core logging, and Avanza Solution methods were employed to collect the data necessary for constructing geological maps and cross-sections. Maptek Vulcan Quarry Modeller was also employed for 3-D modelling and estimation of stone resources. Results revealed that these techniques efficiently improved volume calculation, tonnage, resource, and reserve estimation. These traditional techniques have been proven to enhance accuracy, minimise environmental impact, and facilitate strategic planning when applied effectively. Nevertheless, financial and technical constraints persist. The validation of the methods used in the study revealed a 99.99% performance score. Thus, this study is considered highly reliable, as evidenced by the near-total concordance between the predicted and actual volumes, which implies great internal consistency in this study and hence reproducibility. The research suggests that training initiatives should focus on specific requirements, low-technology expenditure, and organisation by agencies such as ASPASA, the Department of Mineral Resources and Energy, and the Council for Geoscience to implement sustainable methods.