Climate change is a contemporary global challenge that requires comprehensive solutions to mitigate its adverse effects. All human activities contribute to climate change, mainly through atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as nitrous oxide (N₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and methane (CH₄). While most of these emissions are primarily due to fossil fuel use, agriculture and livestock production also contribute to a significant share of approximately 12% of global emissions. Most processes that are implemented within an animal husbandry unit are associated with greenhouse gas emissions, including manure management. This review explores the interconnection between climate change and manure management practices, highlighting the potential for sustainable approaches to mitigating GHG emissions. The key strategies for manure management, such as anaerobic digestion, nutrient management, composting, manure separation and treatment, and improved storage and handling, are discussed, as they are implemented in different livestock production systems (ruminants, poultry, and pigs). Despite the technological progress, there is still a place for further improving manure management approaches, especially in non-ruminant species leading to a higher mitigation potential and a reduction in greenhouse gases emissions. Moreover, policy support and incentives for sustainable practices are crucial for widespread adoption.

The study assesses the direct effects of climate change by 2060, including extreme events, on the productivity of regional crop farming and livestock in Greece, and the broader socio-economic effects on the agri-food and other sectors. Different approaches (i.e., agronomic models, statistical regression models, and equations linking thermal stress to livestock output) were combined to estimate the effects on productivity from changes in the average values of climatic parameters, and subsequently the direct economic effects from this long-term climate change. Recorded damages from extreme events together with climatic thresholds per event and crop were combined to estimate the direct economic effects of these extremes. The broader socio-economic effects were then estimated through input–output analysis. Under average levels of future extreme events, the total direct economic losses for Greek agriculture due to climate change will be significant, from EUR 437 million/year to EUR 1 billion/year. These losses approximately double when indirect effects on other sectors using agricultural products as inputs (e.g., food and beverage, hotels, and restaurants) are considered, and escalate further under a tenfold impact of extreme events. Losses in the GDP and employment are moderate at the national level, but significant in regions where the contribution of agriculture is high.

Although pig meat accounts for nearly half of total meat production in Europe, less attention has been focused on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of pig farming. The aim of this study was to assess and compare the impact of pig livestock on GHG emissions during the period 2015–2020 in major European countries, including Greece, using different computational approaches (Tier 1, Tier 2, Gleam-i software v. 2.0 developed by FAO, Rome, Italy). A semi-extensive pig farm was also used as a small-scale scenario. The ranking of the countries related to GHG emissions was not affected by the applied methodology. Spain had the highest emissions due to the higher number of farming animals. The noted numeric differences in the estimations can be attributed to the elaborated and different equational approach that Tier 2 methodology and Gleam-i followed, considering many livestock parameters. Additionally, the semi-extensive farm had lower emissions/fewer animal compared to the average intensive pig farm in the Greek territory. The Tier 1 approach revealed that breeding animals produces more to the emissions, contrary to Tier 2, which showed that fattening pigs is responsible for the majority of GHG emissions. Therefore, specific animal categories could be targeted (i.e., fattening gilts) in a more specialized manner apart from general strategies (i.e., animal improvement).

The study assesses the direct effects of climate change by 2060, including extreme events, on the productivity of regional crop farming and livestock in Greece, and the broader socio-economic effects on the agri-food and other sectors. Different approaches (i.e., agronomic models, statistical regression models, equations linking thermal stress to livestock output) were combined to estimate the effects on productivity from changes in the average values of climatic parameters, and subsequently the direct economic effects from this long-term climate change. Recorded damages from extreme events together with climatic thresholds per event and crop were combined to estimate the direct economic effects of these extremes. The broader socio-economic effects were then estimated through input-output analysis. Under average levels of future extreme events, the total direct economic losses for the Greek agriculture due to climate change will be significant, from €437 million/ year to €1 billion/ year. These losses approximately double when indirect effects on other sectors using agricultural products as inputs (e.g., food and beverage, hotels, restaurants) are considered, and escalate further under a tenfold impact of extreme events. Losses in the GDP and employment are moderate at the national level, but significant in regions where the contribution of agriculture is high.

The poultry sector is considered to be one of the most industrialized sectors of livestock production. Although the livestock sector contributes the 14.5% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, less attention has been paid in the respective emissions of the poultry sector compared to other farmed animals such as ruminants. The aim of the study was to estimate the carbon footprint of the poultry sector (layers, broilers, and backyards) in the Greek territory during the last 60 years as a means of exploring further mitigation strategies. Tier 2 methodology was used to estimate GHG emissions. Different mitigation scenarios related to changes in herd population, feeds, and manure management were examined. GHG emissions showed an increased trend over time. The different scenarios explored showed moderate to high mitigating potential depending on the parameters that were changed. Changes in manure management or diet revealed to have a higher potential to eliminate GHG emissions. Changes in population numbers showed a low mitigating potential. However, if mortality could be improved within industrialized farming systems, then it could be an indirect increase in product quantities with a slight increase in emissions. Therefore, depending on national priorities, the sector could improve its environmental impact by targeting aspects related to husbandry/management practices.

Although beef production is one of the most valuable drivers of the global livestock economy, it is considered the main contributor to GHG emissions derived from livestock. This study’s objectives were to estimate the GHG emissions (expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents; CO₂-eq) from the beef sector in Greece at the national and prefecture levels during the period 2011–2021 and to explore potential mitigation scenarios. The Tier 1 and 2 methodologies were implemented to estimate the GHG emissions. The total estimated emissions increased over the study period. Although both methodologies captured similar trends in the changes in GHG emissions, the Tier 2 estimations revealed lower emissions and fluctuations due to the different and more precise computational approaches. At the prefecture level, fluctuations in emissions were also noted. However, specific regions showed higher increases in emissions. The observed increase in emissions, in terms of either absolute values (Gg CO₂-eq) or intensities (Kg CO₂-eq/Kg produced beef carcass), is of utmost importance, and further mitigation strategies should be considered. The regression analysis showed a good predictive ability for emissions, using the number of livestock animals as the input. The equations derived from this analysis could be further used as first-approach tools for capturing future emissions at the national level before proceeding with more elaborate approaches. The different scenarios examined in response to the sector’s challenges showed moderate changes in GHG emissions. Depending on national priorities, such scenarios could serve as pilot case studies, which may assist stakeholders in improving the sustainability of the sector in the future.