Indonesian people consume rice as their staple food, therefore rice farming is the main source of farming and livelihood for rural residents in Indonesia. Various policies that have been taken by the government to encourage increase in production and productivity of this commodity, but the results have not reached what was expected. This study aims to analyze the factors affecting income of rice farming in Indonesia. The data were analyzed using Multiple Linear Regression Analysis Model (MLRAM). As the results, it found that the significant factors affecting farmers’ income of rice farming in District Maros, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia were productivity, selling prices, and production costs of the rice farming managed by an individual farmer. Then, the MLRAM is a good model in predicting the income of rice farming in the district. In general, these findings are a substantial indicator that imply the importance of improving farm management in order to increase productivity, stabilize selling prices and reduce production costs for rice commodity. By improving farm management, it is expected to encourage farmers to increase their income from rice farming specifically and encourage rural economic growth in Indonesia generally.

Agricultural extension workers play an essential role in the productivity of agricultural systems. Based on the actual conditions in the field, it can be seen that the level of extension services still needs to be higher due to a lack of human resources in the field of extension services. This research was conducted to determine the effectiveness of agricultural extension services andthe factors that influence the effectiveness of agricultural extension to farmers in Baubau City, Indonesia. The analytical method includes exogenous latent variables: human resources, technological progress, farming capital, farmer age, education, and farming experience. The effectiveness of agricultural extension is used as an endogenous latent variable. The research sample consisted of 110 rice farmers in Baubau City, and the Slovin formula was used to calculate the sample. The data collection for this research was carried out by distributing questionnaires to respondents, in-depth interviews, and direct observation in the city of Baubau. Using the AMOS application, quantitative analysis was carried out through structural equation modeling (SEM). The study results show that: (1) The factors that influence the effectiveness of agricultural extension in Baubau City are farming capital, farmer age, education, farming experience, and human resources, and (2) the influence of these factors on the effectiveness of agricultural extension is as follows: if the farming capital is high, human resources can be increased. In addition, the higher the farmer’s age, the lower the need for human resources. It is also noted that higher farmer education contributes to increased human capital, and increased experience in farming is associated with increased human capital. Thus, an increase in human resources will increase the effectiveness of agricultural extension. Significant factors that influence the effectiveness of agricultural extension in Baubau City, Southeast Sulawesi, are farming capital, farmer age, education, farming experience, and human resources.

The research objective was to examine the factors influencing the effectiveness of agricultural extension in clove farming in Sidrap Regency. Primary data were collected using structured interviews with 140 selected clove farmers to achieve this objective. The binary logistic regression model was employed to test the influence of fourteen independent variables on the dependent variable. The research results indicated that the variables of family size, mass communication approach, electronic media, and clove cultivation material significantly and positively impacted the effectiveness of agricultural extension in clove farming. Meanwhile, the variables of educational attainment, farming experiences, farmers’ cosmopolitanism, print media, and land area had a negative significant effect, and the other variables had no significant effect. These findings are important indicators and valuable insights in promoting and encouraging the effectiveness of extension in clove farming. The findings emphasize the significant role of family characteristics, agricultural extension approaches, and communication delivery methods in the diffusion of agricultural technology and enhancing the effectiveness of agricultural extension. Based on the research results, policy recommendations are proposed to enhance extension effectiveness in clove farming, specifically, augmented farmer education on clove cultivation and the intensification and extensification of mass extension methods, as well as using electronic media in extension activities.

Farmers’ institutions are currently more cultural and primarily oriented only to getting government facilities. Farmers’ institutions have not been directed at utilizing access to various technological information, capital, and markets needed to develop horticultural agribusiness. Nevertheless, almost all farmers’ institutions exist in rural areas, but not all existing institutions can survive and carry out their functions sustainably. The research objective was to examine the impact of human capital through leadership and group capital on the sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions. The study was carried out at Uluere District, Bantaeng Regency, which is designated as a horticulture agribusiness development zone in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The sample selection was conducted using a simple randomized method, where 10% of the overall population was chosen. This method resulted in a sample size of 233 respondents for this study. The data gathering was done during September and November of 2022. Moreover, to acquire findings about the effect of human capital on the long-term viability of institutional agribusiness horticulture, we conducted an analysis using the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) method. The findings indicated that individual capability, individual motivation, organizational climate, and workgroup effectiveness were key factors of human capital that directly impact institutional strengthening. These factors were found to have positive and statistically significant connections. In addition, leadership and group capital connected the many aspects of human capital to the sustainability of horticultural agribusiness. The results of this study will significantly enhance ongoing efforts to formulate a plan aimed at mitigating rural development challenges, especially in Indonesia.