Bioremediation techniques are increasingly popular in addressing soil pollution. Despite this, using earthworms as first actors or adjuvants in decontamination is an open and little-discussed field. This paper focuses on vermiremediation effectiveness alone or combined with other bioremediation methods, such as phytoremediation and bioaugmentation. Literature was collected following the PRISMA criteria, setting the search with the following keywords: “(vermiremediation) AND (bioremediation OR phytoremediation OR plant*) AND (bioaugmentation OR bacteria)”. The investigation was performed on Google Scholar, Science Direct, SciFinder and Web of Science databases. The article data were collected, compared, elaborated, graphically summarised and discussed to assess if the earthworms’ activities play a critical role in tackling several soil pollutions. Furthermore, the review aimed to identify the most promising techniques in the function of the xenobiotic examined: organic, inorganic or both. Any gaps and criticism were highlighted to facilitate future research in this study area.

The present study aimed to i) assess the disintegration of a novel bio-packaging during aerobic composting (2 and 6 % tested concentrations) and evaluate the resulting compost ii) analyse the ecotoxicity of bioplastics residues on earthworms; iii) study the microbial communities during composting and in 'earthworms' gut after their exposure to bioplastic residues; iv) correlate gut microbiota with ecotoxicity analyses; v) evaluate the chemico-physical characterisation of bio-packaging after composting and earthworms' exposure. Both tested concentrations showed disintegration of bio-packaging close to 90 % from the first sampling time, and compost chemical analyses identified its maturity and stability at the end of the process. Ecotoxicological assessments were then conducted on Eisenia fetida regarding fertility, growth, genotoxic damage, and impacts on the gut microbiome. The bioplastic residues did not influence the earthworms' fertility, but DNA damages were measured at the highest bioplastic dose tested. Furthermore bioplastic residues did not significantly affect the bacterial community during composting, but compost treated with 2 % bio-packaging exhibited greater variability in the fungal communities, including Mortierella, Mucor, and Alternaria genera, which can use bioplastics as a carbon source. Moreover, bioplastic residues influenced gut bacterial communities, with Paenibacillus, Bacillus, Rhizobium, Legionella, and Saccharimonadales genera being particularly abundant at 2 % bioplastic concentration. Higher concentrations affected microbial composition by favouring different genera such as Pseudomonas, Ureibacillus, and Streptococcus. For fungal communities, Pestalotiopsis sp. was found predominantly in earthworms exposed to 2 % bioplastic residues and is potentially linked to its role as a microplastics degrader. After composting, Attenuated Total Reflection analysis on bioplastic residues displayed evidence of ageing with the formation of hydroxyl groups and amidic groups after earthworm exposure.

Although the broad-spectrum pesticide chlorpyrifos (CP) was banned in many developed countries, it is still widely used in developing countries. Its residues persist in the environment for unpredictable times. CP is toxic to various non-target organisms and humans and inhibits soil enzyme activity and bacterial and fungal abundance. This paper aimed to evaluate the effect of vermiremediation on soil chlorpyrifos content and soil fertility. The application of Eisenia fetida or vermicompost was studied in terms of soil chlorpyrifos concentration, microbial biomass content, and enzymatic activities in a 120-day trial. Pesticide application rates were 0, 25, and 50 ppm. The CP did not affect the earthworm survival rate at the tested doses. The earthworms markedly increased microbial biomass carbon and the activity of β-glucosamminidase, while the vermicompost had a noticeably positive effect mainly on alkaline phosphatase activity. Finally, although the vermiremediation techniques studied did not perform a bioremediation activity, they proved effective in improving the biological fertility of the soil in the presence of high concentrations of chlorpyrifos.

Nickel, despite being an essential trace element in nature, is emerging as a pollutant, especially in agricultural environments, due to increasing concentrations detected in soil following human activities. In this scenario, vermiremediation represents a valid bioremediation technique that exploits the numerous ecological qualities of earthworms and their products. This work aimed to evaluate the effects of Eisenia fetida and vermicompost produced by this species, applied alone or in combination, on soil contaminated with three Ni doses (40, 140, and 240 mg kg⁻¹). The influence of the applied vermiremediation agents was assessed by measuring Ni concentrations in various fractions, microbial biomass content, and enzymatic activities over a 60-day trial. Earthworms did not bioaccumulate nickel within their tissues. However, they intermittently increased the water-soluble and bioavailable fractions of Ni, whereas the combination of earthworms and vermicompost treatment stabilised them. The combined treatment of E. fetida and vermicompost significantly increased microbial biomass carbon and the activities of alkaline phosphatase and β-glucosidase, while earthworms alone had a positive effect on N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase activity. In conclusion, the vermiremediation agents improved overall soil health: vermicompost stabilised Ni, earthworms stimulated microbial activity, and their combination yielded synergistic benefits for soil functional recovery.