LoRaWAN is a flagship Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technology that has highly attracted much attention from the community in recent years. Many LoRaWAN end-devices, such as sensors or actuators, are expected not to be powered by the electricity grid; therefore, it is crucial to investigate the energy consumption of LoRaWAN. However, published works have only focused on this topic to a limited extent. In this paper, we present analytical models that allow the characterization of LoRaWAN end-device current consumption, lifetime and energy cost of data delivery. The models, which have been derived based on measurements on a currently prevalent LoRaWAN hardware platform, allow us to quantify the impact of relevant physical and Medium Access Control (MAC) layer LoRaWAN parameters and mechanisms, as well as Bit Error Rate (BER) and collisions, on energy performance. Among others, evaluation results show that an appropriately configured LoRaWAN end-device platform powered by a battery of 2400 mAh can achieve a 1-year lifetime while sending one message every 5 min, and an asymptotic theoretical lifetime of 6 years for infrequent communication.

Sigfox has become one of the main Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technologies, as it has attracted the attention of the industry, academy and standards development organizations in recent years. Sigfox devices, such as sensors or actuators, are expected to run on limited energy sources; therefore, it is crucial to investigate the energy consumption of Sigfox. However, the literature has only focused on this topic to a very limited extent. This paper presents an analytical model that characterizes device current consumption, device lifetime and energy cost of data delivery with Sigfox. In order to capture a realistic behavior, the model has been derived from measurements carried out on a real Sigfox hardware module. The model allows quantifying the impact of relevant Sigfox parameters and mechanisms, as well as frame losses, on Sigfox device energy performance. Among others, evaluation results show that the considered Sigfox device, powered by a 2400 mAh battery, can achieve a theoretical lifetime of 1.5 or 2.5 years while sending one message every 10 min at 100 bit/s or 600 bit/s, respectively, and an asymptotic lifetime of 14.6 years as the message transmission rate decreases.

LoRaWAN has become a popular technology for the Internet of Things (IoT) device connectivity. One of the expected properties of LoRaWAN is high network scalability. However, LoRaWAN network performance may be compromised when even a relatively small number of devices use link-layer reliability. After failed frame delivery, such devices typically tend to reduce their physical layer bit rate by increasing their spreading factor (SF). This reaction increases channel utilization, which may further degrade network performance, even into congestion collapse. When this problem arises, all the devices performing reliable frame transmission end up using SF12 (i.e., the highest SF in LoRaWAN). In this paper, we identify and characterize the described network condition, which we call the SF12 Well, in a range of scenarios and by means of extensive simulations. The results show that by using alternative SF-management techniques it is possible to avoid the problem, while achieving a packet delivery ratio increase of up to a factor of 4.7.

Long-range frequency hopping spread spectrum (LR-FHSS) is a pivotal advancement in the LoRaWAN protocol that is designed to enhance the network’s capacity and robustness, particularly in densely populated environments. Although energy consumption is paramount in LoRaWAN-based end devices, this is the first study in the literature, to our knowledge, that models the impact of this novel mechanism on energy consumption. In this article, we provide a comprehensive energy consumption analytical model of LR-FHSS, focusing on three critical metrics: average current consumption, battery lifetime, and energy efficiency of data transmission. The model is based on measurements performed on real hardware in a fully operational LR-FHSS network. While in our evaluation, LR-FHSS can show worse consumption figures than LoRa, we find that with optimal configuration, the battery lifetime of LR-FHSS end devices can reach 2.5 years for a 50 min notification period. For the most energy-efficient payload size, this lifespan can be extended to a theoretical maximum of up to 16 years with a one-day notification interval using a cell-coin battery.

LoRaWAN has become a flagship LPWAN technology, and one of the main connectivity alternatives for IoT devices. Since LoRaWAN was designed for low energy consumption, it is fundamental to understand its energy performance. In this paper, we study the impact of packet size on LoRaWAN device energy consumption per delivered data bit (EPB). By means of extensive simulations, we show that, when network performance is very high or very low, EPB decreases steadily with packet size; otherwise, EPB may show an “asymmetric U” shape as a function of packet size, with a minimum EPB value that is achieved for a medium packet size. We also provide detailed insights on the reasons that produce the observed behaviors.

Long-Range Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (LR-FHSS) is the newest modulation in LoRaWAN, designed to overcome the scalability and coverage limits of conventional LoRa. This study provides a real-world evaluation of LR-FHSS performance, benchmarking it directly against LoRa. An outdoor campaign was conducted in urban and semi-urban scenarios in and near the city of Castelldefels using a complete LR-FHSS-enabled network and an end-device transmitting at LoRa and LR-FHSS data rates (DRs). Measurements were collected along four diverse paths, capturing key metrics such as Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR). The results clearly underline the advantages of LR-FHSS; while LoRa at DR0 and DR5 quickly lost connectivity beyond 1.5–2 km, LR-FHSS, particularly at DR8 and DR10, kept reliable links at 3–4 km. LR-FHSS robustness was most evident in non-line-of-sight (NLoS) and long-range scenarios. These findings highlight LR-FHSS as a strong candidate for future IoT deployments, offering extended range and higher robustness in challenging environments.