Long-range frequency hopping spread spectrum (LR-FHSS) is a pivotal advancement in the LoRaWAN protocol that is designed to enhance the network’s capacity and robustness, particularly in densely populated environments. Although energy consumption is paramount in LoRaWAN-based end devices, this is the first study in the literature, to our knowledge, that models the impact of this novel mechanism on energy consumption. In this article, we provide a comprehensive energy consumption analytical model of LR-FHSS, focusing on three critical metrics: average current consumption, battery lifetime, and energy efficiency of data transmission. The model is based on measurements performed on real hardware in a fully operational LR-FHSS network. While in our evaluation, LR-FHSS can show worse consumption figures than LoRa, we find that with optimal configuration, the battery lifetime of LR-FHSS end devices can reach 2.5 years for a 50 min notification period. For the most energy-efficient payload size, this lifespan can be extended to a theoretical maximum of up to 16 years with a one-day notification interval using a cell-coin battery.

Wi-Fi facilitates the Internet connectivity of billions of devices worldwide, making it an indispensable technology for modern life. Wi-Fi networks are becoming significantly denser, making energy consumption and its effects on operational costs and environmental sustainability crucial considerations. Wi-Fi has already introduced several mechanisms to enhance the energy efficiency of non-access point (non-AP) stations (STAs). However, the reduction of energy consumption of APs has never been a priority. Always-on APs operating at their highest capabilities consume significant power, which affects the energy costs of the infrastructure owner, aggravates the environmental impact, and decreases the lifetime of battery-powered APs. IEEE 802.11bn, which will be the basis of Wi-Fi 8, makes a big leap forward by introducing the AP power save (PS) framework. In this article, we describe and analyze the main proposals discussed in the IEEE 802.11bn Task Group (TGbn), such as scheduled power save, (semi-)dynamic power save, and cross-link power save. We also consider other proposals that are being discussed in TGbn, namely the integration of wake-up radios (WuRs) and STA offloading. We then showcase the potential benefits of AP PS in several scenarios, including a deployment of 470 real APs on a university campus. Our numerical analysis reveals that AP power consumption can be decreased on average by up to 28 percent, with further improvement potential. Finally, we outline the open challenges that need to be addressed to optimally integrate AP PS in Wi-Fi and ensure its compatibility with legacy devices.

Long-Range Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (LR-FHSS) is the newest modulation in LoRaWAN, designed to overcome the scalability and coverage limits of conventional LoRa. This study provides a real-world evaluation of LR-FHSS performance, benchmarking it directly against LoRa. An outdoor campaign was conducted in urban and semi-urban scenarios in and near the city of Castelldefels using a complete LR-FHSS-enabled network and an end-device transmitting at LoRa and LR-FHSS data rates (DRs). Measurements were collected along four diverse paths, capturing key metrics such as Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR). The results clearly underline the advantages of LR-FHSS; while LoRa at DR0 and DR5 quickly lost connectivity beyond 1.5–2 km, LR-FHSS, particularly at DR8 and DR10, kept reliable links at 3–4 km. LR-FHSS robustness was most evident in non-line-of-sight (NLoS) and long-range scenarios. These findings highlight LR-FHSS as a strong candidate for future IoT deployments, offering extended range and higher robustness in challenging environments.

In traditional IoT applications, energy saving is crucial, whereas the demand for high bandwidth is not frequent. Nonetheless, a new generation of IoT applications show a wider and varying range of requirements, where bandwidth or delay become key performance indicators to consider, which can be satisfied by technologies like Wi-Fi. However, Wi-Fi does not provide a long link range, and it exhibits a high energy consumption. To solve these issues, we propose a Wi-Fi mesh architecture where devices are equipped with a secondary, Wake-up Radio (WuR) interface, based on the new IEEE 802.11ba amendment. A WuR allows the main radio to remain in a power-saving state for long periods. Simulation results demonstrate that this architecture drastically reduces energy consumption, while keeping delay figures similar to those of traditional, single-interface approaches. To our best knowledge, this work pioneers the exploration of WuR's practicality in optimizing energy consumption in Wi-Fi-based mesh networks.

Wireless connectivity, and Wi-Fi in particular, has become a major driver of value in the digital economy. As applications increasingly demand lower latency, higher reliability, and multigigabit speeds, the 6 GHz band has emerged as a critical resource. While regions such as the United States have opened the full 5925 to 7125 MHz range for unlicensed use, Europe has taken a more conservative approach. Today, only the lower 6 GHz band (5945-6425 MHz) is harmonized in Europe, primarily for low-power indoor operation. The upper 6 GHz band (6425-7125 MHz) remains under discussion, with regulators considering different options for sharing or prioritization between mobile networks and Wi-Fi. This article assesses the case for expanding unlicensed access to 6 GHz in the European Union (EU-27), with emphasis on the upper 6 GHz band, by linking technical performance gains to macroeconomic outcomes. In particular, we outline the current regulatory framework, quantify the technical benefits of allowing the full band for Wi-Fi use, and present an economic analysis of the opportunity cost of limiting Wi-Fi access to only the lower portion of the 6 GHz band across the EU. Our estimations indicate that the EU may forgo €8,125 million in gross domestic product (GDP) in 2025, rising to €11,275 million in 2030, due to constrained growth in the access network quality index under continued restrictions on Wi-Fi access to the upper 6 GHz band, for a total GDP uplift of €58,366 million in the six-year period.