Lung cancer is currently the second leading cause of cancer death worldwide. In recent years, checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy (ICI) has emerged as a new treatment. A better understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TMJ) or the immune system surrounding the tumor is needed. Cytokines are small proteins that carry messages between cells and are known to play an important role in the body’s response to inflammation and infection. Cytokines are important for immunity in lung cancer. They promote tumor growth (oncogenic cytokines) or inhibit tumor growth (anti-tumour cytokines) by controlling signaling pathways for growth, proliferation, metastasis, and apoptosis. The immune system relies heavily on cytokines. They can also be produced in the laboratory for therapeutic use. Cytokine therapy helps the immune system to stop the growth or kill cancer cells. Interleukins and interferons are the two types of cytokines used to treat cancer. This article begins by addressing the role of the TMJ and its components in lung cancer. This review also highlights the functions of various cytokines such as interleukins (IL), transforming growth factor (TGF), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF).

Lung cancer accounts for the majority of cancer cases. In recent years, checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy (ICI) has emerged as a new treatment. A better understanding of the tumor microenvironment, or TMJ, or the immune system surrounding the tumor is needed. Cytokines are small proteins that carry messages between cells and are known to play an important role in the body's response to inflammation and infection. Cytokines are important for immunity in lung cancer. It promotes tumor growth (oncogenic cytokines) or inhibits tumor growth (anti-tumor cytokines) by controlling signaling pathways for growth, proliferation, metastasis, and apoptosis. The immune system relies heavily on cytokines. They can also be produced in the laboratory for therapeutic use. Cytokine therapy helps the immune system stop the growth or kill cancer cells. Interleukins and interferons are two types of cytokines used to treat cancer. This article begins by addressing the role of the tumor microenvironment (TMJ) and its components in lung cancer. This review also highlights the functions of various cytokines such as IL, TGF and TNF.

Research has shown the role of growth factors in lung cancer angiogenesis. Angiogenesis promotes lung cancer progression by stimulating tumor growth, enhancing tumor invasion, contributing to metastasis, and modifying immune system responses within the tumor microenvironment. As a result, new treatment techniques based on the anti-angiogenic characteristics of compounds have been developed. These compounds selectively block the growth factors themselves, their receptors, or the downstream signaling pathways activated by these growth factors. The EGF and VEGF families are the primary targets in this approach, and several studies are being conducted to propose anti-angiogenic drugs that are increasingly suitable for the treatment of lung cancer, either as monotherapy or as combined therapy. The efficacy results are encouraging, but a caution must be placed on the higher risk of toxicity, outlining the importance of personalized follow-up in the management of these patients.

Lung carcinoma is a malignant tumor that begins in the lung and is largely represented by non-small cell lung cancer, which remains the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. It is very important to put emphasis on the early detection and treatment of lung carcinoma. This study aims to provide evidence for the clinical use of conventional serum markers cancer antigen 125 (CA125), cytokeratin 19 fragment antigen 21-1, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), human epididymis protein 4, human chorionic gonadotropin, and alpha-fetoprotein, along with inflammatory cytokines (prolactin, stem cell factor, osteopontin, and vascular endothelial growth factor) in lung cancer management. From December 2024 to March 2025, 91 lung cancer patients and 100 healthy subjects from Sechenov University's Institute of Personalized Oncology, Moscow, Russia, were enrolled in this study. Fasting blood samples were collected with the help of a standard venipuncture method to determine its expression in serum. We used the chi-square and Mann–Whitney's U tests to compare differences between groups, and employed multivariate logistic regression to identify independent risk factors. Diagnostic performance, including sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve (AUC) values, was evaluated through receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. All data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 27. Lung cancer patients had significantly greater serum levels of CA125 and prolactin than controls (all p < 0.05), while FGF2 levels were significantly higher in controls than in cases. CA125 and age were identified as independent risk factors for lung cancer in multivariate logistic regression analysis. Prolactin had an AUC of 0.65 with 47.8% sensitivity and 80.6% specificity (all p < 0.05) in ROC analysis, whereas CA125 had an AUC of 0.64 with 44.6% sensitivity and 85.7% specificity. CA125 and prolactin are elevated and independently associated with lung cancer. Their high specificity and moderate sensitivity imply that they may be useful in conjunction with other markers or imaging tests to improve identification and risk assessment.

Tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a particularly important role in the pathogenesis and drug resistance of lung cancer. This article provides a framework that allows us to view lung cancer through the lens of cancer stem cells (CSCs) and angiogenesis, with the aim of enhancing both clinical and laboratory insights. It critically examines the bidirectional interactions between CSCs and other components of the TME, highlighting their combined contributions to tumor aggressiveness and angiogenic processes. We discuss the mechanisms by which CSCs influence angiogenesis, including the release of growth factors and cytokines, while also emphasizing how angiogenic factors, in turn, modulate CSC behavior and help maintain a microenvironment that supports tumor growth. Potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets— such as CD133, ALDH1, and VEGF—are explored as valuable not only for disease management but also for the development of targeted therapies for lung cancer. This article ultimately provides a foundation for researchers to further investigate these interconnected processes and for clinicians to consider therapeutic strategies when managing patients with lung cancer. Given the multifaceted nature of lung cancer biology and the numerous molecules involved, we advocate for a panel-centered approach in both research and clinical management, while underscoring the importance of carefully considering toxicity risks and variability in molecular expression.

Background: Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer mortality world-wide, underscoring the need for non-invasive early diagnostic tools. IP-10, a cytokine involved in inflammation and angiogenesis, is a promising candidate. The present study aims to assess the relevance of IP-10 in lung cancer early diagnosis. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we measured serum IP-10 levels using Luminex assays in 52 treatment-naïve lung cancer patients without comorbidities and 14 healthy controls. Based on the non-normal distribution of data, group comparisons were performed using Wil-coxon rank-sum tests. Multivariate linear regression was used to adjust for cofounders. Results: IP-10 levels were significantly elevated in lung cancer patients compared to healthy controls (median: 189.69 pg/mL vs. 108.78 pg/mL, p = 0.001). This significance persisted in the early-stage subgroup (stages 0-IIA; median: 192.49 pg/mL vs. 108.78 pg/mL, p = 0.001), even after multivariate adjustment (p = 0.018). Levels peaked in evolved early-stage disease (median: 241.42 pg/mL) before declining in advanced stages, while remaining elevated above controls. Discussion: The rise in IP-10 levels in early-stage lung cancer patients emphasizes its potential to serve as an early diagnostic biomarker. Meanwhile, the peak-and-decline pattern during phases of disease is consistent with its postulated dual role in early antitumor immunity and later tumor promotion. Conclusion: IP-10 can potentially be used as a supplemental serum biomarker for early lung cancer diagnosis. This finding calls for additional validation in bigger, multi-center cohorts to define diagnostic thresholds and investigate their incorporation into multi-marker panels.