“Muscle tone” is a clinically important and widely used term and palpation is a crucial skill for its diagnosis. However, the term is defined rather vaguely, and palpation is not measurable objectively. Therefore, several methods have been developed to measure muscle tone objectively, in terms of biomechanical properties of the muscle. This article aims to summarize these approaches. Through database searches, we identified those studies related to objective muscle tone measurement in vivo, in situ. Based on them, we described existing methods and devices and compared their reliability. Furthermore, we presented an extensive list of the use of these methods in different fields of research. Although it is believed by some authors that palpation cannot be replaced by a mechanical device, several methods have already proved their utility in muscle biomechanical property diagnosis. There appear to be two issues preventing wider usage of these objective methods in clinical practice. Firstly, a high variability of their reliability, and secondly, a lack of valid mathematical models that would provide the observed mechanical characteristics with a clear physical significance and allow the results to be compared with each other.

Introduction: Healthcare workers have a high prevalence of musculoskeletal problems, which are often associated with the physical demands of their work, especially with manual handling, lifting and helping patients with mobility. In this paper, we examined these interventions from the physiotherapist’s point of view, mainly with the help of biomechanics, and proposed appropriate ergonomic approaches to reduce risks of musculoskeletal disorders. Methods: We analysed two basic interventions: helping patients to sit over the edge of the bed (starting in the supine position) and helping them to stand up. To determine the safest and most effective methods, we used a combined approach of biomechanics and ergonomics, and we also considered the patient’s cooperation in order to train independence and functionality. This approach has also been explained with the help of ergonomic principles. Results: The optimization of assisting patients to sit over the edge of the bed emphasized minimal lifting, gradual execution, effective rotation of partial centres of gravity, patient activation, use of levers (to use gravity), and rotation instead of lifting. When helping patients to stand up, it is most optimal for the healthcare worker to stand next to the patient, ideally on the side where the patient has preserved better functionality. All the proposed methods have proven to be more ergonomically effective and safe, and allow the patient to gain more independence and functionality. Discussion: By incorporating the principles of ergonomics and biomechanics, we can reduce the physical burdens of healthcare workers, which does not only improve the safety of healthcare providers, but also increases the safety and independence of patients. Our findings highlight the need to evaluate the relevance of traditional approaches to lifting and handling patients in healthcare. Conclusion: Incorporation of optimized methods into patient mobility curricula for healthcare professionals is suggested. Policy changes that focus on reducing manual tasks and lifting and include ergonomic interventions can play a key role in reducing work-related musculoskeletal problems.

При дорожно-транспортных происшествиях с участием автомобилей и пешеходов травмы головы являются одним из наиболее распространенных повреждений. Известно, что самая распространенная причина смерти – удар пешехода головой о лобовое стекло автомобиля. В данной статье исследуются биомеханические аспекты при ударном взаимодействии автомобиля и пешехода, с целью анализа травм головного мозга и шейного отдела позвоночника. Для анализа нагрузок, при которых возникают переломы, использовались параметры прочности и жесткости костей лица и черепа, а также для определения скорости движения головы при ударе о лобовое стекло автомобиля применялся простой аналитический подход. Были проведены эксперименты для изучения дефектов на лобовом стекле, в результате столкновения с объектом, имитирующим голову человека с различной скоростью. Рассмотрены два варианта определения скорости удара головы пешехода при столкновении с автомобилем. Первый случай, предполагает, что центр тяжести манекена перемещается с той же скоростью, что и наезжающее транспортное средство, в результате чего скорость удара примерно вдвое превышает скорость автомобиля. Второй (более реалистичный сценарий) предусматривает перемещение тела с гораздо меньшей скоростью, что в результате дает большую в полтора раза угловую скорость головы, чем скорость автомобиля, при определенном угле наклона относительно оси x. Согласно расчетам, чем меньше угол наклона лобового стекла, тем меньше скорость удара головой при фиксированной скорости автомобиля. Признавая ограничения моделирования, в исследовании подчеркивается необходимость использования экспериментальных данных для более реалистичных результатов. Применение биомеханики в экспертизе дорожно-транспортных происшествий должно учитывать размеры повреждений лобового стекла в зависимости от скорости. Данное исследование способствует пониманию факторов, влияющих на травмы при дорожно-транспортных происшествиях, и подчеркивает важность эмпирических данных в судебно-медицинской экспертизе. Предлагаемый аналитический подход и результаты, полученные в ходе экспериментов, могут быть использованы для проверки корректности заключений при столкновении автомобиля с пешеходом.

This paper systematically explores the mechanical properties of facial and cranial bones, aiming to contribute to the understanding of brain and cervical spine injuries from a mechanical/biomechanical perspective. The research also seeks to provide insights applicable in forensic practice, bridging the gap for engineering professionals not typi-cally involved in forensic medicine. Strength and stiffness parameters of facial and cra-nial bones were utilized to analyze forces leading to fractures, proposing a simple analyt-ical approach for determining head velocity upon striking a car windshield. Experimental testing was conducted to examine defects on the windshield resulting from an impactor's crash, simulating head impacts at varying velocities. Two approaches for determining head impact velocity during pedestrian-car collisions were explored. The first, neglect-ing body deformation effects, assumes that the manikin's center of gravity moves at the same speed as the impacting vehicle, resulting in an impact velocity that is approximate-ly twice the car's speed. The second, a more realistic scenario, considers slower move-ment of the body's center of gravity, yielding an impact velocity that is about one and a half times the car's speed, with a specific angle relative to the X-axis. Calculation reveals that head impact velocity decreases with reduced windshield inclination at constant ve-hicle speed. Experimental testing with an adult head impactor monitored impact velocity, acceleration, contact time, and puncture diameter and depth on the vehicle glass. Results align closely with published data, emphasizing higher injury risk near the location of fixation of the windshield to the frame of the vehicle. In forensic investigations, the re-search findings, including newly measured or calculated parameters, offer practical ap-plications. Acknowledging simulation limitations, the study emphasizes the reliance on experimental data for a more realistic understanding. Application of knowledge in expert opinions for car crashes with injuries involves considering windshield defect dimen-sions in relation to speed, minimizing the need for revision by expert opinions. This comprehensive exploration contributes to understanding biomechanical factors influenc-ing injuries, particularly in vehicular accidents, and underscores the importance of em-pirical data in forensic practice. The proposed analytical approach and experimental insights provide valuable tools for forensic professionals and contribute to the broader understanding of injury mechanisms.