The plant-Trichoderma-pathogen triangle is a complicated web of numerous processes. Trichoderma spp. are avirulent opportunistic plant symbionts. In addition to being successful plant symbiotic organisms, Trichoderma spp. also behave as a low cost, effective and ecofriendly biocontrol agent. They can set themselves up in various patho-systems, have minimal impact on the soil equilibrium and do not impair useful organisms that contribute to the control of pathogens. This symbiotic association in plants leads to the acquisition of plant resistance to pathogens, improves developmental processes and yields and promotes absorption of nutrient and fertilizer use efficiency. Among other biocontrol mechanisms, antibiosis, competition and mycoparasitism are among the main features through which microorganisms, including Thrichoderma, react to the presence of other competitive pathogenic organisms, thereby preventing or obstructing their development. Stimulation of every process involves the biosynthesis of targeted metabolites like plant growth regulators, enzymes, siderophores, antibiotics, etc. This review summarizes the biological control activity exerted by Trichoderma spp. and sheds light on the recent progress in pinpointing the ecological significance of Trichoderma at the biochemical and molecular level in the rhizosphere as well as the benefits of symbiosis to the plant host in terms of physiological and biochemical mechanisms. From an applicative point of view, the evidence provided herein strongly supports the possibility to use Trichoderma as a safe, ecofriendly and effective biocontrol agent for different crop species.

Trichoderma spp. has the ability to inhibit fungal plant pathogens through several mechanisms like the production of hydrolytic enzymes, mycoparasitism, coiling, and antibiosis and is therefore recommended as a potential and native biocontrol agent for effective control of soil-transmitted diseases. Various species of Trichoderma, like T. virens, T. asperellum, T. harzianum, etc., have been explored for their biocontrol activity against phytopathogens. There are different Trichoderma species and strains with respect to plant pathogens. Efforts have been made to develop effective and efficient methods, such as microencapsulation use of different polymers, adjuvants, or carriers, to increase the shelf-life and efficacy of Trichoderma formulations. The crucial aspects for the success of a biocontrol agent include developing and validating formulations, improvement in shelf-life, cost-effectiveness, easy accessibility, improved delivery systems, broad spectrum in action, robust performance (biocontrol), and integrative strategies for sustainable disease management. This review focuses on recent developments in the isolation, identification, preservation, substrates, consortium, quality control, mass production, delivery methods, field performance, registration, and commercialization of Trichoderma formulations for strategic development of next-generation multifunctional biological control formulations.

Chickpeas contribute to half of the pulses produced in India and are an excellent source of protein, fibers, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. However, the combination of the wilt and root rot diseases drastically lowers its yield. The use of antagonist microbes that restrict the growth of other phytopathogens is an ecofriendly approach to combat the serious threats raised by the plant pathogens. Trichoderma spp. are well known as biocontrol agents, especially against soil- and seed-borne phytopathogens. In this study, 21 Trichoderma isolates that were collected from different rhizospheric soils were evaluated against two notorious soil-borne pathogens, such as Fusarium oxysproum f.sp. ciceri and Sclerotium rolfsii. The maximum percentage of inhibition against the tested pathogens was observed in Trichoderma isolate PBT13 (72.97%, 61.1%) followed by PBT3 (72.23%, 59.3%). The mycelial extension rate method, dual culture (antagonism), production of cell-wall degrading enzymes (CWDs), and antifungal metabolites (by GC-MS) were used as selection criteria for potent Trichoderma isolates. Among the 21 isolates, PBT3, PBT4, PBT9, and PBT13 exhibited high antagonistic activity, production of antifungal metabolites, and chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activity. These four species were subjected to molecular characterization using an internal transcribed spacer (ITS 1 and ITS4). The results of molecular characterization identified the four species as T. virnes, T. asperellum, T. lixii, and T. harzianum. Moreover, significant chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activities of all Trichoderma isolates were recorded in the growth medium. Trichoderma harzianum (isolate PBT13) was found to exhibit the highest chitinase activity in terms of zone formation (4.40 ± 0.17 cm), whereas Trichoderma virens (isolate PBT3) exhibited the highest β-1,3-glucanase activity1.511 μmole/min. A GC-MS analysis of ethyl extracts from two isolates of Trichoderma (PBT9, PBT13) revealed the presence of 28 VOCs. Overall, this study suggests that these four Trichoderma strains are promising biological control agents (BCAs) and could be developed as bio-pesticides after stringent field trials for the management of soil-borne diseases of chickpeas.

Background: Soil-borne pathogens such as Sclerotium rolfsii ( Agroathelia rolfsii Sacc.) and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri pose serious threats to chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) production. Trichoderma spp. are widely recognized in modern agriculture as effective biocontrol agents due to their ability to produce several lytic enzymes, including chitinases, glucanases and proteases, which contribute to the inhibition of plant pathogens. Objectives: This study aimed to screen Trichoderma isolates for protease and chitinase activity, evaluate their antagonistic potential against two chickpea pathogens, and assess the synergistic effects of Trichoderma and biochar in disease suppression and plant growth promotion. This study investigated the protease and chitinase activities of different Trichoderma isolates and evaluated their synergistic potential with biochar in promoting defense-related enzymes in chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.). Methods: A total of 21 Trichoderma isolates were screened for protease and chitinase activity. Four potent strains— T. harzianum (PBT13), T. virens (PBT3), T. lixii (PBT14), and T. asperellum (PBT4)—were selected for further evaluation. Antagonistic activity against F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri and S. rolfsii was assessed using dual culture assays and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The extracellular chitinase activity of the most active strain was quantified, and its inhibitory effect on pathogenic growth was determined. The combined application of T. harzianum and rice husk biochar significantly influenced disease incidence, defense enzyme activity, germination, chlorophyll content, sclerotia formation, and Trichoderma survivability under greenhouse and field conditions. Results: Among the tested isolates, T. harzianum (PBT13) showed the highest enzymatic activity and strong antagonism against both pathogens. Extracellular chitinase activity peaked at 60 U/mL, suppressing in vitro growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri by 95.95% and S. rolfsii by 97.10%. Greenhouse/field trials revealed that combining T. harzianum with rice husk biochar significantly reduced disease incidence, enhanced plant defense, enzyme activity, improved germination and chlorophyll content, reduced sclerotia formation, and promoted Trichoderma survival in soil. Conclusion: The study demonstrates that enzyme-active Trichoderma strains, particularly T. harzianum (PBT13), in combination with rice husk biochar, provides a sustainable and synergistic approach for managing soil-borne diseases in chickpea. This integrated strategy not only suppresses pathogens but also improves plant health and resilience, offering a viable alternative to chemical fungicides.

Chilli is one of the most significant spice crops cultivated with numerous culinary, medicinal, and industrial applications. Colletotrichum have a wide host range causing anthracnose disease in various crops whereas in chili anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum capsici is the major constraint in chili production. Under severe environmental conditions, the symptoms appear all over the plant including fruit which lead to complete crop damage. The particular disease has a huge economic impact on yield reduction and also debars the export criteria due to the less quality of chili crop. Management of the disease is difficult under field conditions and majority of the management strategies are highly dependent on the use of chemicals. Solely rely on chemicals is harmful to environmental and human health so integrated disease management approach can help to manage the disease at the initial stage. Detection and identification of pathogen play a major role in pathogen management. Early identification and detection of the pathogen based on conventional and molecular methods are very important to reduce yield loss under field conditions. The current review consists of a detailed understanding of the pathogen, identification, detection and diagnosis, and the most recent research updates.

Trichoderma formulations have garnered significant attention in agricultural practices owing to their multifaceted roles in promoting plant growth, enhancing disease resistance, and improving soil health. However, despite extensive research in this field, a comprehensive bibliometric analysis elucidating the trends, patterns, and advancements remains scarce. This study aims to fill this gap by conducting a bibliometric analysis of publications about Trichoderma formulations. Leveraging data from prominent scholarly databases, the analysis examines publication trends, authorship patterns, citation networks, and thematic evolution over time. By identifying key research clusters and influential works, this study offers insights into the current state of Trichoderma research, as well as potential avenues for future exploration. Understanding the landscape of Trichoderma formulations through bibliometric analysis is crucial for unlocking their full potential in sustainable agriculture and fostering innovation in biocontrol strategies.