A strong relationship exists between immune dysfunction and cardiovascular disease. Immune dysregulation can promote the development of cardiovascular diseases as well as exacerbate their course. The disorders may occur due to the presence of primary immune defects (currently known as inborn errors of immunity) and the more common secondary immune deficiencies. Secondary immune deficiencies can be caused by certain chronic conditions (such as diabetes, chronic kidney disease, obesity, autoimmune diseases, or cancer), nutritional deficiencies (including both lack of nutrients and bioactive non-nutrient compounds), and medical treatments and addictive substances. This article unravels the molecular linkage between the aforementioned immune system disorders and atherosclerosis.

An organism’s ability to function properly depends not solely on its diet but also on the intake of nutrients and non-nutritive bioactive compounds that exert immunomodulatory effects. This principle applies both to healthy individuals and, in particular, to those with concomitant chronic conditions, such as type 2 diabetes. However, the current food industry and the widespread use of highly processed foods often lead to nutritional deficiencies. Numerous studies have confirmed the occurrence of immune system dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes. This article elucidates the impact of specific nutrients on the immune system function, which maintains homeostasis of the organism, with a particular emphasis on type 2 diabetes. The role of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins, and selected substances, such as omega-3 fatty acids, coenzyme Q10, and alpha-lipoic acid, was taken into consideration, which outlined the minimum range of tests that ought to be performed on patients in order to either directly or indirectly determine the severity of malnutrition in this group of patients.

An improved recognition of inborn errors of immunity (IEI) is associated with an increase in life expectancy and a higher incidence of complications and related conditions. The aim of the study was to analyze factors enabling the primary prevention: BMI, smoking and selected laboratory tests (morphology with smear, creatinine, eGFR, total protein, albumin, ferritin, folic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin D3) included in the protocols of standard of care for adult patients with primary antibody deficiencies (PADs). The study included 94 participants ≥ 18 years old, diagnosed with PADs. Overweight was found in 17%, obesity in 14% and underweight in 15% of patients; 11.5% of patients smoked. Leukopenia was diagnosed in 16%, neutropenia in 8.5%, lymphopenia in 22.5% and thrombocytopenia in 14% of patients. A decreased concentration of hemoglobin was found in 32%, total protein in 19%, albumin in 17%, vitamin D3 in 52%, vitamin B12 in 6.5%, folic acid in 34% and ferritin in 26% of patients. Creatinine concentrations were elevated in 16% of patients, while in 20%, eGFR was reduced. Only a holistic assessment of comorbidities and complications of deficiency, as well as regular follow-up and lifestyle changes, can yield the best results in the long-term care of patients.

The life expectancy and the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases in patients with inborn errors of immunity are systematically increasing. The aim of the study was to assess cardiovascular risk factors and to evaluate the heart in echocardiography in patients with primary antibody deficiency (PAD). Cardiac echography and selected cardiovascular risk factors, including body mass index, sedentary lifestyle, nicotine, glucose, C-reactive protein, lipid profile, uric acid level, certain chronic diseases, and glucocorticoid use, were analyzed in 94 patients >18 years of age with PAD. Of the patients,25.5% had a cardiovascular disease (mostly hypertension, 18%), 10.5% smoked, 17% were overweight, 14% were obese, and 15% were underweight. Abnormal blood pressure was found in 6.5% of the patients. Lipid metabolism disorders were found in 72.5% of in the studied cohort, increased total cholesterol (45.5%), non-high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (51%), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (47%), and triglycerides (32%) were observed. Furthermore, 28.5% had a decrease in HDL and 9.5% had a history of hyperuricemia. The average number of risk factors was 5 ± 3 for the entire population and 4 ± 2 for those under 40 years of age. Elevated uric acid levels were found de novo in 4% of participants. In particular, 74.5% of the patients had never undergone an echocardiogram with a successful completion rate of 87% among those tested. Among them, 30% showed parameters within normal limits, primarily regurgitation (92.5%). New pathologies were identified in 28% of patients. Prevention in patients with PAD, aimed at reducing cardiovascular risk, should be a priority. low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (47%), and triglycerides (32%) were observed. Furthermore, 28.5% had a decrease in HDL and 9.5% had a history of hyperuricemia. The average number of risk factors was 5 ± 3 for the entire population and 4 ± 2 for those under 40 years of age. Elevated uric acid levels were found de novo in 4% of participants. In particular, 74.5% of the patients had never undergone an echocardiogram with a successful completion rate of 87% among those tested. Among them, 30% showed parameters within normal limits, primarily regurgitation (92.5%). New pathologies were identified in 28% of patients. Prevention in patients with PAD, aimed at reducing cardiovascular risk, should be a priority.

Background: Cardiovascular diseases are some of the most prevalent chronic diseases that generate not only high social but also economic costs. It is becoming increasingly crucial to take into account inborn errors of immunity (IEIs, formerly known as primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs)) and secondary immunodeficiencies (SIDs) in the diagnostic and therapeutic management of cardiac patients. The number of diseases classified as IEIs is on the rise, with a current total of 485. It is essential to pay attention not only to already confirmed conditions but also to symptoms suggestive of immunodeficiencies. Objectives: The aim of this article is to present IEIs with cardiovascular symptoms that may cause or exacerbate cardiovascular disease, as well as diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Results: It is becoming increasingly evident that immunodeficiencies can be responsible for certain cardiovascular conditions, their hastened progression, and difficulties in their control. Conclusions: Early detection of deficiencies improves not only the quality and longevity of patients, but also allows for better control of cardiovascular diseases and even prevention of their occurrence.