Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder with a chronic, progressive course. The etiology of this condition is linked to the interactions of multiple genes and environmental factors. The earlier age of onset of schizophrenia, the higher frequency of negative symptoms in the clinical presentation, and the poorer response to antipsychotic treatment in men compared to women suggests the involvement of sex hormones in these processes. This article aims to draw attention to the possible relationship between testosterone and some clinical features in male schizophrenic patients and discuss the complex nature of these phenomena based on data from the literature. PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases were searched to select the papers without limiting the time of the publications. Hormone levels in the body are regulated by many organs and systems, and take place through the neuroendocrine, hormonal, neural, and metabolic pathways. Sex hormones play an important role in the development and function of the organism. Besides their impact on secondary sex characteristics, they influence brain development and function, mood, and cognition. In men with schizophrenia, altered testosterone levels were noted. In many cases, evidence from available single studies gave contradictory results. However, it seems that the testosterone level in men affected by schizophrenia may differ depending on the phase of the disease, types of clinical symptoms, and administered therapy. The etiology of testosterone level disturbances may be very complex. Besides the impact of the illness (schizophrenia), stress, and antipsychotic drug-induced hyperprolactinemia, testosterone levels may be influenced by, i.a., obesity, substances of abuse (e.g., ethanol), or liver damage.

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is used in HIV‐infected patients. Alongside the prolongation of patients’ life, adverse side effects associated with long‐term therapy are becoming an increasing problem. Therefore, optimizing of HAART is extremely important. The study is aimed at evaluating the toxicity of abacavir and etravirine in monotherapy on the reproductive system, liver, kidneys, and bones in young, sexually mature, male rats. Thirty‐six 8‐week‐old male Wistar rats randomized into three 12‐animal groups received either normal saline (control), abacavir 60 mg/kg (AB group), or etravirine 40 mg/kg (ET group) once daily for 16 weeks. Semen morphology, oxide–redox state parameters (MDA, SOD, catalase, GPx, glutathione, GSH/GSSG ratio) in tissue homogenates (testes, liver, kidneys), and serum samples were studied. In bones, microcomputed tomography and a four‐point bending test were performed. Total sperm count, sperm concentration, motility, and sperm morphology did not differ significantly in AB or ET groups compared to the control. In the flow cytometry of semen, an increased percentage of cells with denatured DNA was noticed for both tested drugs. However, no significant changes of oxide–redox state in testicular homogenates were found, except of increased SOD activity in the AB‐receiving group. Additionally, ET significantly altered catalase and GPx in the liver and SOD activity in kidneys. Abacavir decreased catalase in the liver and GSH levels in kidneys. AB caused significant changes to bone microarchitecture (bone volume fraction, trabecular number, connectivity density, total porosity) and increased Young’s modulus. Etravirine had a greater impact on macrometric parameters of bones (tibial index, mid‐tibial diameter, femur length). After 4 weeks in the ET group, a lower 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D₃ serum concentration was found. The results showed that abacavir and etravirine disturb oxidative stress. An increase in the percentage of sperms with chromatin damage suggests decreased fertility in rats receiving the studied drugs. Both drugs affected bone formation in growing rats. Additionally, etravirine disturbed vitamin D metabolism.

Background: Cephalometric analysis is an essential tool used in orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning. The aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability and repeatability of new cephalometric points introduced in Tau angle analysis, in contrast to the gold standard, which is the analysis of the ANB angle. For this purpose, an attempt was made to assess the repeatability and reliability of the introduction of anthropometric points by evaluating both inter- and intraobserver parameters, as well as the agreement among the orthodontists participating in the study. Methods: Repeatability and reliability assessments for all six anthropometric points (N, A, B, T, M, G) used in the analysis of the ANB and Tau angles were conducted individually by 29 orthodontists. This assessment was performed in triplicate on the day of the study, on the day following the first study, and on the seventh day after the second study. Measurement errors for the ANB and Tau angles were evaluated using the Dahlberg formula and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Results: The orthodontists in the study measured sagittal discrepancy significantly more accurately using the ANB angle compared to the Tau angle (p < 0.001). The Dahlberg error for measuring the Tau angle was three times greater than that for the ANB angle (p < 0.001). Additionally, the ICC for the Tau angle was more than 3.5 times smaller than that for the ANB angle, while the R&R error for Tau measurement was more than three times greater than that for the ANB angle (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The results of ANB angle measurements exhibit fewer errors in comparison to Tau angle measurements.

Background: Understanding the anatomy of the incisive canal is crucial for effective diagnosis and treatment planning in clinical orthodontics. This is because, during orthodontic tooth movement, there is a risk of contact between the roots of the upper central incisors and the incisive canal. Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the anatomical variability of the incisive canal using cone beam computed tomography (CBCT), as well as to evaluate its correlation with age, sex, and the position of the maxillary central incisors. There are only a few studies on this topic. Materials and methods: We analysed CBCT data from 67 patients aged from 13 to 49 years. This study was conducted at the Wroclaw Medical University. Measurements were performed twice by two independent researchers, and intra-observer error and correlation were calculated. The mean difference between the first and second observations and between observers was also assessed. We examined the dimensions of the incisive canal and its relationship to the roots of the upper central incisors in relation to age and gender. Results: Our study results revealed a significant correlation between the width and length of the incisive canal. Males exhibited a significantly greater canal length at the lowest point of the incisive canal on the palatal wall. Additionally, males had wider canals compared to females. The analysis of canal width and distance between the most mesial point of the root and the line passing through the most anterior point of the incisive canal showed a negative correlation in all age groups of men. The analysis of incisal inclination and incisal canal inclination showed a very strong relationship, especially in the age group of 13 to 20 years. Several potential risk groups of contact between the roots of central incisors and the incisive canal have been identified based on their structure and the planned incisors’ orthodontic movement. Conclusions and implications: Knowledge of the anatomy of the incisive canal and the use of 3D imaging in high-risk patients can prevent resorption of the incisor root by considering the individual anatomical conditions of the patient when planning orthodontic tooth movement. We recommend performing a CBCT scan before starting orthodontic treatment in the case of moderate and significant retraction of the incisors, or a significant change in their inclination due to the wide anatomical diversity of the incisive canal, especially in adult patients.

Bone structure abnormalities are increasingly observed in patients chronically treated with antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). The majority of the available data concern older conventional AEDs, while the amount of information regarding newer AEDs, including stiripentol, is limited. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of stiripentol on bones. For 24 weeks, male Wistar rats, received 0.9% sodium chloride (control group) or stiripentol (200 mg/kg/day) (STP group). In the 16th week of the study, we detected lower serum PINP levels in the STP group compared to the control group. In the 24th week, a statistically significant lower 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ level, higher inorganic phosphate level and higher neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) levels in serum were found in the STP group compared to the control. Micro X-ray computed tomography of the tibias demonstrated lower bone volume fraction, lower trabecular thickness, higher trabecular pattern factor and a higher structure model index in the stiripentol group. Considering the results of this experiment on rats which suggests that long-term administration of stiripentol may impair the cancellous bone microarchitecture, further prospective human studies seem to be justified. However, monitoring plasma vitamin D, calcium, inorganic phosphate and kidney function in patients on long-term stiripentol therapy may be suggested.