Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder with a chronic, progressive course. The etiology of this condition is linked to the interactions of multiple genes and environmental factors. The earlier age of onset of schizophrenia, the higher frequency of negative symptoms in the clinical presentation, and the poorer response to antipsychotic treatment in men compared to women suggests the involvement of sex hormones in these processes. This article aims to draw attention to the possible relationship between testosterone and some clinical features in male schizophrenic patients and discuss the complex nature of these phenomena based on data from the literature. PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases were searched to select the papers without limiting the time of the publications. Hormone levels in the body are regulated by many organs and systems, and take place through the neuroendocrine, hormonal, neural, and metabolic pathways. Sex hormones play an important role in the development and function of the organism. Besides their impact on secondary sex characteristics, they influence brain development and function, mood, and cognition. In men with schizophrenia, altered testosterone levels were noted. In many cases, evidence from available single studies gave contradictory results. However, it seems that the testosterone level in men affected by schizophrenia may differ depending on the phase of the disease, types of clinical symptoms, and administered therapy. The etiology of testosterone level disturbances may be very complex. Besides the impact of the illness (schizophrenia), stress, and antipsychotic drug-induced hyperprolactinemia, testosterone levels may be influenced by, i.a., obesity, substances of abuse (e.g., ethanol), or liver damage.

Rotavirus (RV) is the most common cause of severe acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in children under five years of age. This review summarizes current knowledge on RV infections, with a particular focus on viral structure, pathophysiological mechanisms, and age-dependent clinical presentation. Special attention is given to systemic manifestations, including central nervous system involvement, autoimmune responses such as type 1 diabetes and celiac disease, and rare associations with biliary atresia. The mechanisms of RV-induced diarrhea and vomiting are discussed in detail. Clinical severity scoring systems—such as the Vesikari and Clark scales—and dehydration assessment tools—the Clinical Dehydration Scale (CDS) and the Dehydration: Assessing Kids Accurately (DHAKA) score—are compared. The review highlights differences in disease course between children under and over five years, emphasizing that RV is not limited to early childhood. A major section addresses the global effectiveness of vaccination programs, their role in reducing disease burden, coverage challenges, and decreased efficacy in low-income countries. Particular focus is placed on high-risk groups, including preterm and immunocompromised infants.

Introduction Campylobacteriosis, caused primarily by Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, is a significant public health concern worldwide. Since 2007 it has been the most frequently reported zoonotic disease in humans across the European Union. Campylobacteriosis is also the leading cause of bacterial diarrhea. Aim of the study This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, transmission dynamics, diagnostic approaches, and prevention strategies associated with Campylobacter infections. Brief description of the state of knowledge The transmission of Campylobacter spp. typically occurs via the fecal-oral route, with contaminated food, especially poultry, and water serving as common sources of infection. Notably, Campylobacter infections exhibit distinct seasonal patterns and demographic trends, with children and young adults being particularly susceptible. Clinical manifestations range from mild gastrointestinal symptoms to more severe complications, such as reactive arthritis, and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Diagnosis usually relies on microbiological testing. Some of these methods require specialized cultivation techniques, with challenges posed by the phenotypic diversity of Campylobacter species. Summary Effective surveillance and prevention strategies are essential for mitigating the burden of campylobacteriosis and its associated sequelae on both individual and population health. Current research focuses on improving preventive measures, underscoring the importance of advancing public health strategies, and further studies into the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment options. These efforts are crucial for effectively addressing Campylobacteriosis and reducing its effects on human health and agriculture.

Introduction: Water quality is a critical issue affecting human health, with contamination by pathogens leading to various diseases. Pathogens in water, often transmitted through the fecal-oral route, pose significant risks, causing gastrointestinal diseases and bacterial diarrhea. The World Health Organization (WHO) has set water quality standards for recreational use, and sports events like triathlons and the Olympics may involve waterborne infection risks. Additionally, athletes in water sports face health risks from physical exertion and environmental conditions, including exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, hypothermia, hyperthermia and swimming-induced pulmonary edema. Understanding these risks and implementing preventive measures are crucial for ensuring the safety and health of athletes and participants in water-based sports events. Purpose of the work: The purpose of this study is to review the impact and risks of pathogenic microorganisms found in water on the health and physical performance of athletes. Special attention is given to the organization of water sports competitions in the context of microbiological threats. Materials and methods: A comprehensive analysis of research articles available on PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus was conducted using search terms related to: "water sports", "microbiological hazards", "water pathogens", "water quality", "athletes" and "prevention." Results: Microbiological threats included in water expose participants in major sporting events to potential infection that can cause various health issues. To reduce these risks, water quality standards must be monitored, and actions should be taken when limits are exceeded. Event organizers must prioritize athlete safety, considering factors like weather and water quality, and involve public health authorities in decision-making. If health risks are identified, rescheduling or changing the event location should be considered.

Introduction: Infectious skin diseases in athletes, particularly occur in contact sports like wrestling, football, and rugby and are caused by a variety of pathogens, including: bacteria, viruses, and fungi. These infections are common due to direct skin-to-skin contact and can lead to missed training and insufficient physical outcomes in competitions. The most frequent pathogens are methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Trichophyton, and Herpes simplex virus. Skin infections often affect areas like the head, face, and arms and can be transmitted through contaminated equipment or direct contact. Prevention involves good hygiene, early detection, and proper disinfection of sports equipment. Effective management and isolation of infected athletes are key to reducing transmission. Purpose of the work: The aim of this review is to discuss common skin infections in contact sports, their prevalence, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies, categorized into bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Materials and methods: A comprehensive analysis of research articles available on PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus was conducted using search terms related to: "contact sports," "skin infections," "infective skin diseases," "athletes" and "prevention." Results: Infectious skin diseases pose significant risks to athletes in contact sports due to close physical interaction, shared equipment, and skin injuries. Effective prevention requires strict hygiene, prompt wound care, and education on avoiding shared items. Awareness among coaches and athletes is crucial, as proper hygiene practices can reduce outbreaks. More research is needed to better understand transmission and to improve prevention strategies in contact sports.

Introduction and purpose of research With the surge of popularity of energy drinks, a growing trend of mixing alcohol with energy drinks (AmED) has been observed, particularly among youth and young adults. This review aims to explore both the mechanism of action of this mixture as well as its short- and long-term effects. Research Materials and Methods A literature review was conducted using the PubMed database to identify studies on the health effects of alcohol mixed with energy drinks. The search included keywords such as “alcohol mixed with energy drinks”, "alcohol AND energy drinks" and "AmED AND health effects". Basic results Studies consistently report an association between AmED consumption and an increased risk of cardiovascular, mental, and kidney diseases, binge drinking and risky behaviors more frequently than those who consume alcohol alone. A common effect among AmED consumers is “false sobriety”, a phenomenon where individuals feel less intoxicated despite consuming high amounts of alcohol. However, due to the limited number of controlled human studies, the precise physiological and molecular interactions between caffeine and alcohol still remain unclear. Conclusions The ban on pre-mixed AmED products has not yet yielded satisfactory results. Therefore, governments should explore alternative measures, such as stricter regulations on marketing and sales or public awareness campaigns. This article highlights the issue of mixing alcohol with energy drinks, examining physiological effects, potential health risks, and broader societal impacts. With the growing popularity of this practice, our study emphasizes the need for continued research to guide effective prevention strategies and public health actions.