Insulin resistance, which affects insulin-sensitive tissues, including adipose tissues, skeletal muscle, and the liver, is the central pathophysiological mechanism underlying type 2 diabetes progression. Decreased glucose uptake in insulin-sensitive tissues disrupts insulin signaling pathways, particularly the PI3K/Akt pathway. An in vitro model is appropriate for studying the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying insulin resistance because it is easy to maintain and the results can be easily reproduced. The application of cell-based models for exploring the pathogenesis of diabetes and insulin resistance as well as for developing drugs for these conditions is well known. However, a comprehensive review of in vitro insulin resistance models is lacking. Therefore, this review was conducted to provide a comprehensive overview and summary of the latest in vitro insulin resistance models, particularly 3T3-L1 (preadipocyte), C2C12 (skeletal muscle), and HepG2 (liver) cell lines induced with palmitic acid, high glucose, or chronic exposure to insulin.

Background: Carbapenem resistant-non lactose fermenter (CR-NLF) and Carbapenem resistant-Enterobacteriaceae (CR-E) bacterial infections are likely to be a global threat to people’s health. However, studies on the economic impacts according to the hospital setting are very scarce. The study aimed to explore the impact of CR-NLF (Acinetobacter baumannii = CRAB) & Pseudomonas aeruginosa = CRPA) and CR-E (Escherichia coli = CREC) & Klebsiella pneumoniae = CRKP) infections on hospital costs from a payer perspective among patients admitted to Dr.Soetomo Hospital, Surabaya, Indonesia. Methods: In the retrospective case-control study, medical records of all included patients hospitalized during 2018–2021 were reviewed for CRAB, CRPA, CREC, CRKP, and carbapenem sensitive (CSAB, CSPA, CSEC, CSKP) were collected. We retrieved the data of age, gender, clinical specimen, dates of admission, and discharge status. The outcomes of interest were hospital length of stay and hospitalization cost. Results: The cost for CR-NLFs infections was higher than carbapenem sensitive, $3026.24 versus $1299.28 (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference between CR-E against carbapenem sensitive. It showed that the highest impact of the cost was CRAB, followed by CRPA, CRKP, and CREC. The bed, antibiotics, pharmacy, and diagnostic costs of CR-NLFIs were significantly higher than CR-E. Conclusion: This study showed that the hospital cost and expenditure of CR-NLFs per patient were higher than CS. The hospital cost per patient for CR-NLF was higher than CR-E.

Introduction: Antibiotics are well known and recommended as the main therapy for preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM.) But the research on antibiotics other than the recommended macrolides regimens is still lacking. This research aims to evaluate whether there are effects differences of cefotaxime and ceftriaxone given on pregnancy with PPROM by comparing the duration of the latency period and the infants outcomes. Material and Methods: Data was taken retrospectively through medical records at Dr. Soetomo Surabaya General Hospital, Indonesia during the period of January-December 2017. The inclusion criteria were a history of PPROM in pregnancy 0,05), where group A had a median of 52,67 hours and group B was 34,17 hours. Group A was found to be more able to extend the latency period for >48 hours with a percentage of 57,8%, whereas in group B only 42,9%. There are no significant differences in infant outcomes; infant birth weight and Apgar score among the two therapies used. Conclusion: Cefotaxime was more preferably to be used in the Dr. Soetomo Surabaya General Hospital. Nevertheless, ceftriaxone can still be a good choice for PPROM therapy since both cephalosporins have succeeded in preventing infections in women with PPROM.