W opracowaniu przedstawiono kredyt towarowy udzielany gospodarstwom indywidualnym w Polsce, jego źródła, warunki i znaczenie w finansowaniu nakładów produkcyjnych. Podstawowymi źródłami tego kredytu były sklepy i hurtownie oraz odbiorcy produktów, głównie mleczarnie. Pozacenowe warunki udzielania i spłaty badanych kredytów towarowych były korzystniejsze niż bankowych, natomiast cena była bardzo zróżnicowana, a jej deklarowany poziom był wyższy, w porównaniu ze stopami procentowymi płaconymi przez rolników od kredytów preferencyjnych.

In modern times, the risk of food insecurity is a concern for policymakers at the global and national levels, as the issue of hunger and malnutrition still exists. Food security is vulnerable to any crises. The main goal of this paper is to create a neural-network-based predictive model to forecast food consumption trends in Kazakhstan, aiming to reduce the risk of food insecurity. The initial phase of this study involved identifying socioeconomic factors that significantly influence food consumption behaviors in Kazakhstan. Principal component analysis was used to identify key variables, which became the basis for modelling artificial neural networks. It was revealed that the poverty rate, GDP per capita, and food price index are pivotal determinants of food consumption in Kazakhstan. Two models were prepared: to predict food consumption on a national scale per capita per month, and to predict the percentage distribution of various food categories. The prediction of the percentage distribution of various food categories in Kazakhstan demonstrates the positive modelling quality indicators and strengthens the assumption that network modelling can be used. Predictions for total food consumption over the next three years indicate declining metrics, raising concerns about the potential food insecurity risk in Kazakhstan.

The article assesses the food security of one region of Kazakhstan - the East Kazakhstan region. In the analyses, criteria such as the level of the region’s food independence, the degree of satisfaction of the population’s physiological needs in basic food, and the level of economic availability of food were applied. The research has shown that the food security in the East Kazakhstan region was at an acceptable level. However, some threats to food security were identified, including: a high level of income differentiation among the households of the East Kazakhstan region, an increase in the price index for food products, and a significant proportion of the population with incomes below the subsistence minimum. The results of the evaluation can be useful for creating agri-food policy measures that will ensure, maintain and improve the level of food security at both a regional and national level.

The aim of the paper is to examine the theoretical and practical dimensions of public debt in Poland. The empirical study concerns Poland in the course of 1990–2006. The analysis showed 95% of public debt in Poland is due to debt of State treasure. The level of debt (as % of GDP) is lower comparing with many “old” countries of UE and some of post socialistic countries. However, the public debt servicing charges the state budget noticeably

The article aims to identify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the volume and structure of agricultural production in Poland. The literature on pandemics in the past shows that plague influenced the volume and the structure of agriculture output. The consequences varied between the pandemics and in the frame of the same pandemic between countries. What's more, the length of the analysis period matters. The short-term effects were generally damaging however, the evaluation perspective matters. The assessment of long outcomes is complex. The positive, profound long-run effects were identified. The past pandemics impacted the economy and agriculture through the decrease in the availability of labour because of massive deaths. In the pandemic COVID-19, this channel of transmission occurred as well, but in the form of shortages of labour forces due to governments’ restrictions on people's movement. The analyses found that in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland, agriculture production did not decrease. It stemmed from the time gap between the production decisions and getting output. A modest reduction occurred in the second year of plaque. The analyses of the structure and dynamics of the sown area show that farmers restrain themselves from the changes in plant production. Larger adjustments took place in the sector of animal products than in plant products. The most remarkable changes took place in branches of animal production depending on export. Because of the plummet in egg prices, egg production decreased in 2020 and 2021. The fall in meat prices in 2020 resulted in a drop in the meat production in 2021. Despite the unfavourable changes in milk prices, milk production was stable.