Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common sexually transmitted infection that can cause both benign and malignant lesions. HPV vaccines, preferably administered before the onset of sexual activity, have demonstrated remarkable efficacy in preventing HPV-related cancers. The impact of a healthcare provider’s recommendation on HPV vaccine acceptance is substantial. Therefore, medical students must undergo thorough training in this domain. This study compares fundamental understanding and viewpoints regarding HPV and anti-HPV vaccines among Polish students pursuing medical and non-medical sciences. This study was based on the authors’ questionnaire, and the results were statistically analyzed. The participants in this study were 1025 students (medical sciences students—520 respondents in total; and non-medical sciences students—505 respondents in total). According to the results, medical students’ knowledge about the consequences of HPV infection and vaccination against HPV was significantly greater. To date, numerous publications have investigated the understanding of particular social, gender, parental, etc., groups about vaccination, but the knowledge of students at different universities—medical and other—has not been compared. Social awareness is still insufficient, even in groups of medical students. There is much to be done to educate and encourage preventive behavior in those not receiving primary prevention in early childhood.

Caffeine is one of the most widely consumed and extensively studied ergogenic aids in both amateur and professional sports. Its prevalence spans athletes across a range of disciplines. While some athletes regard caffeine as beneficial for athletic performance, others incorporate it into their daily routine. In competitive sports, where every detail of preparation can be essential, caffeine supplementation is frequently employed to enhance physical performance, cognitive function, and training capacity. This review summarizes current scientific evidence regarding the pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, effects, and safety of caffeine use in athletic populations. Biochemically, caffeine is a naturally occurring methylxanthine with rapid absorption, high bioavailability, and predictable hepatic cytochrome P450 1A2 mediated metabolism. Its ergogenic effects are attributed to non-selective antagonism of central adenosine receptors, which increases nervous system excitability, reduces perception of effort and pain, and enhances neuromuscular, cognitive, and psychomotor functions. Evidence-based recommendations indicate that low to moderate doses of caffeine, administered before or during exercise, are effective for most athletes, while smaller repeated doses are advantageous during prolonged events requiring sustained performance. Caffeine is generally considered safe within recommended limits; however, individual variability in dietary habits, genetic factors, and sensitivity necessitates personalized supplementation strategies. Overall, caffeine is a safe and effective ergogenic aid when used appropriately, with optimal outcomes achieved through individualized protocols tailored to specific sports and competition contexts.

Diseases caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae are one of the most common infectious causes of death worldwide, making them a major global burden. For this reason, pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) are one of the key achievements in preventive medicine. PCVs are not only among the most widely used vaccines in the world but also have high clinical efficacy in preventing pneumococcal diseases, including invasive pneumococcal disease, meningitis, bacteremia, pneumonia, otitis media, and upper respiratory tract infections. In addition, PCVs contribute to herd immunity and reduce respiratory tract colonization with streptococci, particularly in newborns and infants, especially during the pre-vaccination period. Due to their very good safety profile, including a low risk of serious adverse reactions and high immunogenicity, PCVs are an important part of international and national vaccination programs. Nevertheless, their availability remains limited in low- and middle-income countries. The high replaceability and persistence of some serotypes, along with multi-drug resistance, keep Streptococcus pneumoniae infections as a major epidemiological challenge. This underscores the importance of monitoring variants and updating vaccination schedules. Modern PCVs now include more serotypes to combat these diseases, guiding future clinical research.

Introduction. Stroke is one of the leading causes of chronic disability worldwide. Conventional rehabilitation frequently faces challenges regarding accessibility, high costs, and difficulties in sustaining patient motivation. These constraints often lead to insufficient training intensity, thereby limiting therapeutic efficacy. Consequently, exploring alternative therapeutic solutions is necessary to enhance clinical outcomes. Aim. This review evaluates the effectiveness of Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), Robotic-Assisted Training (RAT), and telerehabilitation in post-stroke recovery. Methods. A search of PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar was conducted. Included were randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses examining digital technologies in neurorehabilitation. Results. VR and AR improve motor and cognitive functions via immersive feedback. RAT proves effective in delivering high-intensity practice, particularly for lower limb mobility in severe cases, though its superiority over conventional therapy for upper limbs remains inconclusive. Telerehabilitation offers accessibility comparable to face-to-face therapy but relies heavily on patient adherence. Conclusions. Digital technologies address traditional limitations by enabling high-dosage, engaging training that facilitates functional recovery. Future research should focus on optimizing protocols and integrating these solutions into long-term plans.

Chronic non-specific low back pain (NSCLBP) is defined as pain and discomfort lasting at least 12 weeks that cannot be clearly attributed to a specific structural pathology after excluding specific causes of back pain. It is a significant health problem with a major impact on patients' functioning, reducing quality of life, limiting mobility and increasing the number of comorbidities. NSCLBP is also associated with a higher risk of mortality. This is a global problem, it is estimated that chronic lower back pain affects around 8% of the adult population, providing a therapeutic challenge for physicians of many specialties across several continents. The treatment protocol for NSCLBP includes pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, which involve a variety of exercises that differ in terms of difficulty and effectiveness. Exercise-based therapies vary in type, intensity and clinical efficacy, ranging from core stabilization exercises, stretching and strength training to aerobic activities such as walking or swimming. Exercise is a key component in the treatment of NSCLBP, as evidenced by data showing significant reductions in pain and disability. Medication helps with the flare-ups, but cannot replace physical activity when it comes to achieving a genuine, lasting recovery and a return to normal activity.

The aim of this paper is to review current and emerging methods of surgical treatment of long bone fractures. Particular attention is paid to features such as fixation stability, protection of the biological environment and the impact of new technologies. Classic techniques, such as locking plates and intramedullary nails, remain the standard, offering comparable treatment results with differences in the frequency of complications. MIPO reduces blood supply destabilization and preserves post-traumatic hematoma, reducing the number of complications. Rapidly developing methods such as 3D printing and robotic surgery enable precise planning and personalization of implants, leading to increased positioning accuracy and reducing radiation exposure. At the same time, there is growing interest in biodegradable implants. Magnesium alloys show osteogenic and angiogenic potential, although their clinical effectiveness depends on controlling the rate of degradation. PLGA polymers are used especially in pediatric traumatology, eliminating the need for metal removal. However, many of the innovations described require further research. Combining classic methods with new technologies allows for individualized treatment and optimized results.